Language is the most versatile means of communication that reacts in a mobile manner to changes in the needs of society. Every day, one or more new words appear, which are the result of a simplification or merger of existing ones, but the largest number of verbal novelties come from abroad. So, foreign words in Russian: why do they arise and what are they?
Primordially Russian vocabulary
The Russian language has evolved over many centuries, resulting in three stages in the genesis of the original Russian words.
Indo-European vocabulary originated in the Neolithic era and was based on the basic concepts of kinship (mother, daughter), household items (hammer), food (meat, fish), the names of animals (bull, deer) and the elements (fire, water).
The main words were absorbed by the Russian language and are considered part of it.
The Proto-Slavic vocabulary, which was of high relevance at the border of the 6th-7th centuries, had a great influence on Russian speech. and spread to the territory of Eastern and Central Europe, as well as the Balkans.
In this group, words arose related to the plant world (tree, grass, root), the names of crops and plants (wheat, carrots, beets), tools and raw materials (hoe, cloth, stone, iron), birds (goose, nightingale) , as well as food (cheese, milk, kvass).
Modern words of the primordial Russian vocabulary arose in the period from the 8th to the 17th centuries. and belonged to the East Slavic language branch. The mass fraction of them expressed an action (run, lie, multiply, lay), the names of abstract concepts appeared (freedom, outcome, experience, fate, thought), words appeared corresponding to household items (wallpaper, carpet, book) and the names of national dishes ( cabbage rolls, cabbage soup).
Some words have taken root so firmly in Russian speech that they will not need to be replaced soon, while others have been brazenly ousted by more consonant synonyms from the near abroad. So "humanity" turned into "humanity", "appearance" was transformed into "image", and "competition" was called "duel".
The problem of borrowing foreign words
Since ancient times, the Russian people had trade, cultural and political relations with speakers of other languages, so it was almost impossible to avoid mixing vocabulary.
New words were introduced into Russian speech both from neighboring states and from distant republics.
In fact, words of foreign origin are so often and for a long time present in our speech that we are already accustomed to them and absolutely do not perceive them as something alien.
Here are some examples of well-established foreign words:
- China: tea.
- Mongolia: hero, shortcut, darkness.
- Japan: karate, karaoke, tsunami.
- Holland: orange, jacket, hatch, yacht, sprats.
- Poland: donut, market, fair.
- Czech Republic: tights, pistol, robot.
Official statistics say that only 10% of words in Russian are borrowed. But if you listen closely to the spoken language of the younger generation, we can conclude that the contamination of the Russian language with foreign words has a more global scale.
We go to lunch at a fast food place and order a burger and milk shake. Having found free wi-fi, we will not miss the opportunity to visit Facebook to put a couple of likes under the best friend's photo.
Borrowing foreign words: the main reasons
Why are we so attracted by vocabulary from neighboring states?
Greece
Now let's look at the geography of borrowing.
The most generous country that has lent the Russian language part of its vocabulary is Greece. She gave us the names of almost all known sciences (geometry, astrology, geography, biology). In addition, many words related to the field of education (alphabet, spelling, Olympiad, department, phonetics, library) have Greek origin.
Some foreign words in Russian have abstract meanings (victory, triumph, chaos, charisma), others characterize quite tangible objects (theater, cucumber, ship).
Thanks to the ancient Greek vocabulary, we learned how sympathy is expressed, got a taste of style and were able to capture vivid events in photographs.
It is interesting that the meaning of some words passed into the Russian language without change, while others acquired new meanings (economy - home economics, tragedy - goat song).
Italy
Do you think there are many words in the Russian speech that come from the Apennine Peninsula? Surely, apart from the famous greeting "chao", nothing will be immediately remembered. It turns out that Italian foreign words in Russian are present in sufficient quantities.
For example, an identity document was first called a passport in Italy, and only then this word was borrowed in many languages, including Russian.
Everyone knows the tricks of the Sicilian clans, so the origin of the word "mafia" is beyond doubt. Likewise, the "carnival" has taken root in many languages thanks to the bright costume show in Venice. But the Italian roots of "vermicelli" surprised: in the Apennines vermicelli is translated as "worms".
Recently, it has become fashionable to use the definition for the press as "paparazzi". But in a direct translation, these are not journalists at all, as one might think, but "annoying mosquitoes."
France
But France gave the Russian speech a lot of "tasty" words: roasted nuts, jelly, croissant, canapes, creme brulee, scrambled eggs, mashed potatoes, stews, soup, soufflé, eclair, cutlet and sauce. Of course, along with the names of the French chefs, cooking recipes were also borrowed, many of which were to the taste of Russian gourmets.
A few more broad branches of borrowing are literature, cinema and the entertainment industry: artist, ballet, billiards, magazine, verse, play, purse, repertoire, restaurant and plot.
The French also became the inventors of seductive details of women's clothing (panties and peignoir), taught the world the rules of social behavior (etiquette) and the art of beauty (makeup, cream, perfumery).
Germany
German vocabulary is so different from Russian that it is difficult to imagine what words could take root in it. It turns out that there are quite a few of them.
For example, we often use the German word “route”, which means a pre-selected path. Or "scale" - the ratio of sizes on the map and on the ground. And "font" in Russian is the designation of the characters of the letter.
The names of some professions have also taken root: hairdresser, accountant, locksmith.
The food industry also did not do without borrowing: sandwich, dumplings, waffles and muesli, it turns out, also have German roots.
Also, the Russian language has absorbed several fashion accessories into its vocabulary: for women - "shoes" and "bra", for men - "tie", children - "backpack". By the way, an intelligent child is often called a "prodigy" - this is also a German concept.
Foreign words in Russian feel quite comfortable, they even settled in our house in the form of a chair, bathroom and tiles.
England
The largest number of borrowed words come from Foggy Albion. Since English is an international language, and many know it at a fairly decent level, it is not surprising that many words migrated into Russian speech and began to be perceived as native.
Foreign words in Russian are almost ubiquitous, but the most popular areas of their application are:
- business (PR, office, manager, copywriter, broker, holding);
- sports (goalkeeper, boxing, football, penalty, time-out, foul);
- computer technology (blog, offline, login, spam, traffic, hacker, hosting, gadget);
- entertainment industry (talk show, casting, soundtrack, hit).
Very often, English words are used as youth slang, which is most influenced by fashion (baby, boyfriend, loser, teenager, respect, make-up, freak).
Some words have become so popular in the world that they have acquired a common noun (jeans, show, weekend).
Words name objects, phenomena, signs and actions of the surrounding world. The more a person learns the world (including himself), the more he discovers something new in it, and accordingly calls everything new in words. The entire known world is thus reflected in the vocabulary of the language. In terms of vocabulary, the Russian language is one of the richest in the world. "For everything," wrote K. Paustovsky, "in the Russian language there are a great many good words."
However, any language develops in interaction with other languages. Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, commercial, military, political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowing. Gradually, the borrowed words were assimilated (from Lat. Assimilare - to assimilate, to assimilate) by the borrowing language and were no longer perceived as foreign.
Borrowed words - these are such foreign language words that are fully included in the lexical system of the Russian language. They have acquired lexical meaning, phonetic design, grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language, are used in various styles, and are written in the letters of the Russian alphabet.
Reasons for borrowing
In different historical periods, borrowings from other languages intensified, both under the influence of external (non-linguistic) and internal (linguistic) reasons.
External causes – these are various connections between peoples. So, in the X century. Kievan Rus adopted Christianity from the Greeks. In this regard, in the Old Russian language, along with borrowed religious ideas, objects of church worship, many Greek words entered, for example: altar, patriarch, demon, icon, cell, monk, icon lamp, metropolitan and others. Scientific terms, names of objects of Greek culture, names of plants, months, etc. were also borrowed, for example: mathematics, history, philosophy, grammar, syntax, idea, theater, stage, museum, comedy, tragedy, alphabet, planet, climate, doll, poppy, cucumber, beetroot, January, February, December and etc.
From the 13th to the 15th centuries Ancient Rus was under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Words from Turkic languages appeared: barn, cart, quiver, lasso, shoe, felt, armyak, sash, sheepskin coat, heel, wide trousers, noodles, khan, sundress, pencil, shed, chest, trestle bed, shortcut.
During the period of the transformations of Peter I, especially a lot of words from Dutch, German, English, French came into the Russian language. It:
military vocabulary: recruit, camp, watch, parade ground, uniform, corporal, order, soldier, officer, company, assault, harbor, fairway, bay, flag, cabin, sailor, boat, dugout, sapper, landing, squadron, artillery;
art terms: easel, landscape, stroke, leitmotif, flare, full house, flute, dance, choreographer(from German); parterre, play, actor, prompter, intermission, plot, ballet, genre(from French); bass, tenor, aria, bravo, lodge, opera(from Italian); names of new household items, clothes: kitchen, sandwich, waffle, minced meat, tie, cap (and from German); muffler, suit, vest, coat, bracelet, veil, necklace, fashion designer, furniture, chest of drawers, sideboard, chandelier, lampshade, cream, marmalade(from French).
Internal reasons - these are the needs of the development of the lexical system of the language, which are as follows:
1. The need to eliminate the ambiguity of the primordially Russian word, to simplify its semantic structure. This is how the words came into being import Export instead of ambiguous primordially Russian import, export. The words import Export began to denote "import", "export" associated with international trade.
Instead of a descriptive name ( sniper - accurate shooter; motel - hotel for car tourists; sprint - running for short distances; hit - trendy song; killer - payed assassin).
Similarly, the words arose tour, cruise. This process is also supported by the trend towards the creation of international terms. So, for example, football commentators of foreign players in domestic teams call legionnaires.
2. The desire to clarify or detail the corresponding concepts of the language, to delimit its semantic shades. So, briefing - not any meeting casting - not any competition, but primarily in the field of show business. For example, in Russian the word jam both liquid and thick jam are called. To distinguish thick fruit or berry jam, which is a homogeneous mass, from liquid jam, in which whole berries could be preserved, thick jam began to be called the English word jam. The words also arose reportage(with native Russian story), total(with native Russian general), hobby ( with native Russian hobby), comfort - convenience: service - service; local- local; creative- creative ; charm - charm, charm; relaxation - recreation ; extreme- dangerous ; positive- optimism. Thus, the word already existing in the language and the newly borrowed word divide the spheres of semantic influence. These areas may overlap, but they will never coincide completely.
Language signs of borrowed words
Among the phonetic features of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished:
1. Unlike the native Russians, who never begin with a sound a(which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e is mainly distinguished by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this sound): era, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f also indicates a non-Russian source of the sound f and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, film, sofa, scam, aphorism, broadcast, profile etc.
4. A special phonetic feature of Turkic origin is the harmony of the same vowels: ataman, caravan, pencil, sundress, drum, chest, mosque.
5. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, therefore borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature: poet, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
Among the morphological signs of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability. So, some foreign-language nouns do not change in cases, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: coat, radio, cinema, metro, cocoa, beige, mini, maxi, blinds and etc.
End borrowing XX - beginnings XXI century.
Scope of use
There are two main types of borrowed words of our time. The first type is relatively old borrowings, updated in recent years in connection with changes in the political and economic system of Russia (for example, the word the president, borrowed in the Soviet era, became relevant in the 80s).
The second type is new borrowings. They are especially numerous.
In the 90s. the inflow of borrowings into the Russian language increased greatly, which was associated with changes in the sphere of political life, economy, culture and the moral orientation of society.
Borrowing is in the lead in the political life of the country: president, parliament, inauguration, summit, speaker, impeachment, electorate, consensus etc.
in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, monitoring, player, pager, fax, modem, portal, processor, and also in financial and commercial activities:auditor, barter, broker, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, supermarket, manager, default etc.
Into the cultural sphere invade bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, casting etc.
Attention is drawn to the fact that the rapidly growing number of new names of persons in the Russian language is caused not only by the emergence of new professions - to a greater extent this is due to the fact that new subcultures are emerging, classified by lifestyle, by profession, by belonging to culture. Most of these words are borrowed from the English language. In modern Russian, this group of new names of persons can be considered still developing and constantly replenishing:
blogger - a person who, on a professional or amateur basis, is engaged in the conduct and maintenance of a blog; game designer - a person who develops the rules of computer games; downshifter - a person who voluntarily renounced a high position and income for the sake of a simple and unhurried life with his family, for the sake of spiritual self-improvement, travel; skater - a man riding a skateboard; trapper - fur hunter; thrasher - a young man with a non-standard appearance (an abundance of piercings and tattoos, shocking clothes), etc.
Attitude towards borrowing
Foreign words in Russian have always been the subject of close attention and discussion of scientists, public figures, writers, and lovers of the Russian language. Scientists were interested in what place borrowed words occupy in the vocabulary of the Russian language, from which languages most words are borrowed, what is the reason for borrowing, whether foreign words will clog up the native language. Attempts were repeatedly made to replace words that came from other languages with Russian (Peter I,).
Borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. Foreign words add to the vocabulary of the language. This is their positive role. However, the abundant and unnecessary use of foreign words complicates communication, leads to the formation of ridiculous phrases:
An identical decision was made by the pupils of the 3rd "B" grade.
Masha confidentially told her friend about this case.
Until what time is the buffet open?
We wish you family consensus!
Errors in the use of borrowed words lead to the formation of tautological combinations: a leading leader, a young prodigy, a vacancy, his own autograph, an old veteran, a forecast for the future, etc. On the other hand, reasonable borrowings enrich speech, give it greater accuracy.
Nowadays, the question of the expediency of using borrowings is associated with the fixation of lexical means for certain functional styles of speech (for example, in scientific speech, preference is given to a foreign language synonym - integration, not a union; flexion, not the ending). Foreign terminological vocabulary is an irreplaceable means of concise and accurate transfer of information in texts intended for narrow specialists.
In our time, the creation of international terminology, uniform names of concepts, phenomena of modern science, production is taken into account, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character (medical, space terminology). For example: automobile, cosmodrome, democracy, republic, telegraph, dictatorship, philosophy.
The processes of vocabulary enrichment through borrowing occur today in all modern languages. However, time will show how this will change the appearance of the Russian language, enrich it or “spoil” it. It will also determine the fate of borrowings, which in the end will be approved or rejected by the linguistic taste of the era.
Literature
2. Modern Russian language edited by M., 1976
3. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language M., 1971
4. Dictionary of foreign words M: "Russian language", 1988
5. Novels and Americanisms in the Russian language and attitudes towards them. S-Pb., 2000
Faterov Alexander, Karamova Fania
On the one hand, using borrowed words, we enrich our speech, we can communicate with other countries and peoples. But on the other hand, we are deprived of that wealth, that lightness that determines the uniqueness of our language.
Download:
Preview:
District competition of creative works of students
"Intelligence, Creativity, Fantasy".
Section: Linguistics
Theme: Borrowed words in Russian
Completed: grade 9 students
GBOU SOSH № 4, Pokhvistnevo
Faterov Alexander Evgenievich,
Fania Faritovna Karamova
Supervisor:
Karimova Ramilya Lukmanovna,
teacher of the Russian language and literature.
Pokhvistnevo
year 2012
The most important way to get to know a person ... is to listen to how he speaks ... The language of a person is his worldview
and his behavior, as he says, so, therefore, thinks.
D.S. Likhachev
Introduction
In the course of its history, the Russian language has had various connections with the peoples of the whole world. This resulted in numerous foreign words borrowed by the Russian language from other languages.
The fate of the Russian language is a topic that cannot leave indifferent any modern person. We see how the language is changing significantly right before the eyes of one generation. The processes taking place in it, at the moment, require comprehension not only on the part of language specialists. To be happy about this or upset? Fight or accept change?
For our scientific and practical work, we have chosenthe topic "Borrowed words in Russian".Words borrowed from other languages affect our speech, therefore, on our whole life, on the quality of life.
This topic is relevant, since the borrowing of foreign words occurs constantly. We increasingly feel the emergence of new concepts and foreign synonyms that replace our Russian words. We feel the ebb of truly Russian concepts, mechanically we replace them with foreign ones. This happens because a person is constantly in need of something new, in particular, new words.
Problem is that, giving preference to foreign words, we move away from using our own Russian words. We easily introduce new concepts and definitions into our vocabulary, which sometimes we cannot even explain. On the one hand, using borrowed words, we enrich our speech, we can communicate with other countries and peoples. But on the other hand, we are deprived of that wealth, that lightness that determines the uniqueness of our language.
The purpose our work is to find out the reasons for the borrowing of foreign words into the Russian language and the conditions for their existence.
To achieve the goal, we set ourselves tasks, namely: we must find out how words are borrowed and mastered in our language; explain the reasons people use foreign words; find out the sources of borrowed words; to study the influence of foreign words on the Russian language.
Research material.The research is based on the materials of explanatory and etymological dictionaries, on the works devoted to linguistics.Practical value.The collected materials and the results obtained can be used in Russian language lessons, as well as by all those interested in linguistics to expand their horizons.
"All peoples change words and borrow them from each other" V. G. Belinsky
Chapter 1
On the "clogging" of the Russian language with foreign words.
In each language, along with the original words, there are a large number of loanwords. Communicating, peoples "exchange words." According to research by scientists, borrowed words in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language make up 10% of its entire vocabulary.
Borrowing is a natural way of mutual enrichment of languages. In turn, many Russian words have penetrated and are penetrating the languages of other peoples.
But isn't the abundance of foreign words in the language evidence of its "inferiority"? Not at all! Quite the opposite: the easier a language assimilates international vocabulary, the more it is replenished due to the inclusion in it of all that valuable that is contained in other languages, the more perfect and richer this language is.
The penetration into the Russian language of a large number of words of international vocabulary (democracy, constitution, culture, progress, etc.) was perceived by some reactionary leaders of the early 19th century as "clogging" the language with foreign words. That the Russian language should be respected, not distorted and not littered with foreign words, this was spoken and written about more than once. And, of course, among the champions of the purity of the language, there were also those declared that, along with the rubbish, they were ready to sweep away almost all the words of non-Russian origin, even necessary ones that had become firmly established in everyday life and did not require replacement. The Minister of Education A.S.Shishkov was especially furious. He suggested, for example, instead of the foreign language word “ sidewalk "Use the word" trample " (invented by him), instead of “ galoshes "-" wet shoes ", instead of" piano "-" tachograms "And so on. This desire of Shishkov to replace the foreign words that have already become widespread in the Russian language with their own domestic" mock-feet "was met by the advanced Russian public very critically. So A.S. Pushkin, using in the eighth chapter of Eugene Onegin the French expression “comme il faut” (“com il fo”), which later entered the language of Russian fiction, ironically remarked: “... Sorry Shishkov, I don’t know how to translate . ".
In turn, the most zealous admirers of the West rejected any replacement of someone else's word with Russian, incessantly injecting foreign words into speech and trying to tightly close the folk, sources of the Russian language. This inappropriate cluttering of the Russian language with foreign words and terms, which can be easily dispensed with, has always evoked a just protest from those who are fighting for the real purity of their native language.
But does this mean that foreign words should always be avoided in Russian, replacing them with Russian? After all, many borrowings have Russian synonyms.: outline - outline, elimination - cessation, passive - inactive, personal - personaletc. No not always. In books and especially in scientific speech, they are usually appropriate and necessary as special terms. For example, in a publicistic article, the Latin word “ topical "Can hardly be replaced by the Russian word" important ", as" relevant " - it is “very important for the present time, answering the most important questions of our time.
Of course, lively, more and more extensive communication with other countries - sports, scientific, cultural, trade, political; mutual trips - all this makes it possible to exchange views, discoveries and, of course, words. The language is already heavily influenced by the newspaper-radio-television machine. And there is nothing wrong with that, it is beneficial, because it contributes to mutual enrichment and development. However, we always need to know what we need and what we don’t need abroad. In any case, language is no less in need of protection than nature, although we do not always feel it so keenly and, it seems, are not fully aware of it.
Chapter 2
Positive and negative aspects of borrowing.
A borrowed word is a lexical unit taken, borrowed by us (or our ancestors) from some other language. Back in the 19th century. writers and linguists were worried about the question of foreign words in the Russian literary language. N.I. Grech, N.A. Polevoy, V.G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl.
V.G. Belinsky believed that "... to use a foreign language word when there is a Russian word equivalent to it means to offend both common sense and common taste."
Russian speech has recently been replenished and continues to be replenished with many foreign words. Foreign words in Russian have long been the subject of close attention and discussion of scientists, public figures, writers, and lovers of the Russian language. Scientists were interested in what place borrowed words occupy in the vocabulary of the Russian language, from which languages most words are borrowed, what is the reason for borrowing, whether foreign words do not pollute the native language. Attempts were repeatedly made to replace words that came from other languages with Russian (Peter I, MV Lomonosov, VI Dal).
Borrowings without measure clog up speech, make it not understandable for everyone. Excessiveness, inappropriateness, groundlessness of the use of foreign words leads to the formation of ridiculous pseudo-scientific phrases. For example: "We delegated a student in our group to buy textbooks." Errors in the use of borrowed words lead to the formation of tautological combinations.These can be repetitions of words with the same meaning:open vacancy(vacancy is a vacant position), in month of June (June is just the name of the month) first debut (debut - first performance. Unjustified introduction of borrowed words into the text causes great damage to artistic speech. Speech becomes discolored if bookish, inexpressive words are preferred to various and vivid Russian synonyms. For example, they write: "I remembered well the modulations of her voice" (why not say "overflow" or "how her voice sounded").
On the other hand, reasonable borrowings enrich speech, give it greater accuracy.Imagine that we are talking about the life of some distant country, for example, Japan. You can, of course, say a nobleman instead of a samurai, and a cherry instead of a sakura, but a samurai is not exactly what we used to call a nobleman, and the Japanese cherry sakura is not like ours. In addition, such familiar Japanese words askamikaze, kimono, harakiri, ikebana, judo, in general, perhaps, it is impossible to translate into Russian in one word.
The perceived by many greater social prestige of a foreign language word, in comparison with the original, sometimes causes a phenomenon that can be called an increase in rank: a word that in the source language refers to an ordinary, "ordinary" object, in the borrowing language is attached to the object, in one or in a different sense, more significant, more prestigious. So, in French the word boutique - means a shop, a small store, and being borrowed by our fashion designers and merchants, it acquires significance - a fashion store.
Of course, many foreign words, having lost their foreign accent (form, meaning), have replenished the composition of the Russian language, and their use is not objectionable. If we didn’t need these words at all, the language itself would have rejected them, as, for example, in the time of Peter I they didn’t say victory, and victoria, not a pleasure, but a blazir, not a trip, but a voyage, not politeness, but politeness. … Such words did not stand the test of time.
At the same time, in the Russian language there are many such borrowed words that are used in everyday life, and without which we also cannot live: how differentlyname a movie, taxi, cologne, chandelier finally, a steak, mayonnaise, orange.
With the advent of new technical means, the Russian language was replenished with words from the English language such as immobilizer (car alarms), trimmer (mustache and beard clipper), thermopot (thermos and kettle in one). The functional diversity of these means was the reason for the replenishment of the Russian language with Anglicisms, nominating these functions: split systems (in fridge), memory stick (camcorder function), roaming (communication) etc. The new facing materials came along with the Anglicisms denoting them:siding, moldingetc., the enthusiasm for the arrangement of garden plots was the reason for the borrowing of Anglicism mixborder.
Along with the previously borrowed Anglicism sandwich in the speech of a Russian person of the late 90s, anglicisms function:hamburger, fishburger, chisburger, chickenburgerperforming a differentiating function.
The terminology of computer technology that has developed on the basis of the English language is easily replenished with new terms of English origin. The wordswebsite, banner, browserand others are used in the speech of people who deal with computers, which are becoming more and more every year. Consequently, these Englishisms from a purely professional sphere pass into the speech of many Russian people.
Russian media, especially television, also contribute to the “Anglotization” of the Russian language. Words like summit, briefing, talk show, dog showthanks to the media, they became widespread.
In general, foreign words included in the Russian language have a positive and negative side. On the one hand, the emergence of new words expands the vocabulary of native speakers of the Russian language, and on the other hand, its originality and unique beauty are lost.
Research work with loan words.
The essence of the research work was, firstly, to determine which language has a special influence on the Russian language, that is, the words from which language come to us more often than others. Secondly, we had to divide borrowings from different languages into groups according to their importance in Russian, that is, what are borrowed words in Russian for.
To achieve our goals, we worked with a dictionary of foreign words. We chose a thousand words for ourselves (Appendix 1) and distributed them into groups regarding the language they came from: French, English, Latin, German, Spanish, etc. (Appendix 2).
In the course of our work, it was found out, firstly, that the language from which a huge number of words were borrowed into the Russian language is Latin. Despite the fact that Latin is a dead language, it is he who is the international language of medical terms. We use in our speech such words of Latin origin asdonor, medicines, procedure, appendicitis, surgeryand others. Latin is the main language of the names of many diseases, the names of drugs. Latin is the language of medical terminology.
Secondly, we managed to distribute foreign words into groups.
I found out that the Greek language is the basis of legal, legal, political concepts. In our speech, we use such concepts of Greek origin asanarchism, democracy, ochlocracy, charter, organ.
The results of our work have shown that the French language is the cultural, artistic basis of Russian words. We use French words likemenu, carnival, necklace, blinds, dessert, masterpiece, fashion show, present and others. It's no secret that France is a trendsetter. Therefore, many words have been borrowed from French into Russian, meaning wardrobe items: jacket, jacket, boots, etc.
Now consider a group of Englishcomputing terminologywords. Borrowings from English are the basis of sports terminology andcomputing terminology... We use words likebasketball, match, volleyball, badminton, hockey, bobsleigh, butterfly, boxing, golf,website, banner, browser, .
Conducting research among words of German origin, it turned out that the German language had little impact on the Russian language. When Peter I “opened a window to Europe”, some words were borrowed from Germany. These are words likebarbell, potatoes, backpack, bay, folder, stamp, slotted spoon.
As for the words of the Italian language, they are the basis of musical concepts, for example,operetta, trio, quartet, maestro... There are very few words of Italian origin in Russian.
There are borrowings from other languages, for example, from Arabic ( almanac, sheikh), Persian (shah), Spanish ( eldorado, armada), Dutch (steering wheel, storm), Czech (jewelry ), from the Sanskrit language ( yogi ), etc. But, according to our research, borrowings from these languages are very insignificant.
Also, in the course of my research, I noticed that not only whole words are borrowed from other languages, but also parts of words that determine the lexical meaning of Russian words. Many compound word prefixes come from the Greek language, such as the prefix hydro… , which indicates the ratio of these words to water ( seaplane, hydroelectric power plant), prefix bio ... , indicating the relationship of these words to life, to life processes, biology (biography, biosphere). In compound words, we often use prefixes of Latin origin such as video… , indicating the connection of these words with the visible image (video recorder, video).
Conclusion.
Borrowing foreign words is the basis of communication between countries and peoples. Countries and peoples, in the process of their communication, adopt words from each other and rebuild them according to the internal rules of their language.
The work we have done has led us to the following conclusions: the reasons for borrowing foreign words are political, cultural, economic ties between countries. Most often, we do not even think about which word we pronounce - borrowed or Russian. Borrowings are so easily introduced into our lives that we perceive them as our own words. If we use borrowed words, then at least we must clearly understand its meaning.
Borrowed words are needed only if they better express the main meaning of a given concept or if they cannot be replaced by a Russian concept. But if there is already a synonymous word in the Russian language, then it is not necessary to replace it with a foreign language. As native speakers of the Russian language, we should pay more attention to our Russian words and use the vocabulary that our Russian language is rich in.
Oral literature goes out,
Conversational beauty;
Retreat into obscurity
Russian speech miracles.
Hundreds of native and well-aimed words. Having dropped, the voice, having lost,
Locked up like birds in a cage
Doze in thick dictionaries.
Let them out of there
Return to everyday life.
So that speech is a human miracle -
Has not become scarce these days.
(V. Shefner "Oral speech")
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction to linguistics. Reader. Compiled by: B. Yu. Norman and N. A. Pavlenko. Ed. A. E. Supruna. Minsk, "Vysheysh. school ", 1977.
A short dictionary of foreign words / Comp. S. M. Lokshina. - 8th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Rus. yaz., 1985 .-- 352 p.
My tongue is my friend / Comp. L. T. Grigoryan: Materials for extraclasses. work in Russian. lang .: A guide for the teacher. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Education, 1988 .-- 207 p.
Vartanyan E.V. "Journey to the Word", M. "Enlightenment", 1987.
Lyustrova Z. N., Skvortsov L. I. "Friends of the Russian language", M. "Knowledge" 1982
Uspensky L. V. "On the roads and paths of language", M. "Children's literature", 1980.
Yakovlev K. "How we spoil the Russian language", "Young Guard", 1976.
Borrowed words in Russian
By the nature and volume of borrowings in the Russian language, it is possible to trace the paths of the historical development of the language, that is, the paths of international travel, connections and scientific development, and, as a consequence, the crossing of Russian vocabulary and phraseology with other languages. Observing the transition of words and phrases from any foreign language into Russian helps to understand the history of the Russian language, both literary and dialects.
Borrowings and foreign words
You should distinguish between borrowings and foreign words.
Borrowings (words, less often syntactic and phraseological turns) are adapted in the Russian language, undergo the necessary semantic and phonetic changes. Adaptation to the realities of the Russian language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowings from foreign words. Foreign words retain traces of their foreign language origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features.
In the history of the language, periods of predominant borrowing have changed:
- from the Germanic languages and Latin (Proto-Slavic period);
- from the Finno-Ugric languages (the period of colonization by the Slavs of Northern and North-Eastern Russia);
- from the Greek, and then the Old / Church Slavonic language (the era of Christianization, further book influence);
- from the Polish language (XVI-XVIII centuries);
- from Dutch (XVIII), German and French (XVIII-XIX centuries);
- from the English language (- the beginning of the XXI century).
Borrowing history
Borrowings in the Old Russian language
Many foreign words borrowed by the Russian language in the distant past are so mastered by him that their origin is revealed only with the help of etymological analysis. These are, for example, some borrowings from the Turkic languages, the so-called Turkisms. Words from the Turkic languages have penetrated into the Russian language since the time when Kievan Rus was adjacent to such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Polovtsy, Berendei, Pechenegs and others. Approximately to the VIII-XII centuries, such ancient Russian borrowings from the Turkic languages as boyar, tent, hero, pearl, koumiss, mob, cart, horde... It should be noted that historians of the Russian language often disagree about the origin of certain borrowings. So, in some linguistic dictionaries, the word horse it is recognized as Türkism, while other specialists attribute this word to the original Russian.
Grecisms left a noticeable mark, which came to the Old Russian language mainly through the Old Church Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium took an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins. The Greekisms of the period of the X-XVII centuries include words from the region religions: anathema, angel, bishop, daemon, icon, monk, monastery, lamp, sexton; scientific terms: maths, philosophy, history, grammar; household terms: lime, sugar, bench, notebook, flashlight; denomination plants and animals: buffalo, beans, beet other. Later borrowings are mainly related to the area arts and sciences: trore, comedy, mantle, poem, logics, analogy other. Many Greek words that have received international status entered the Russian language through Western European languages.
By the 17th century, there were translations from Latin into Church Slavonic, including the Gennady Bible. Since then, the penetration of Latin words has begun into the Russian language. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day ( Bible, doctor, medicine, lily, the Rose other).
Borrowing under Peter I
The flow of borrowed foreign language vocabulary characterizes the reign of Peter I. Peter's transformative activity became a prerequisite for the reform of the literary Russian language. The Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the realities of the new secular society. The language of that time was greatly influenced by the penetration of a number of foreign words, mainly military and craft terms, the names of some household items, new concepts in science and technology, in naval affairs, in administration, in art, etc. in Russian, such borrowed foreign words as algebra, optics, globe, apoplexy, varnish, compass, cruiser, port, frame, army, deserter, cavalry, office, Act, rent, rate and many others.
Dutch words appeared in Russian mainly in the times of Peter the Great in connection with the development of navigation. These include ballast, buer, spirit level, shipyard, harbor, drift, maneuver, pilot, sailor, yacht, rudder, flag, navy, navigator etc.
From the English language at the same time, terms from the field of maritime affairs were also borrowed: barge, bot, brig, whaleboat, midshipman, schooner, boat other.
It is known, however, that Peter himself had a negative attitude towards the dominance of foreign words and demanded from his contemporaries to write “as intelligibly as possible”, without abusing non-Russian words. For example, in his message to Ambassador Rudakovsky, Peter wrote:
"In your reports you use very many Polish and other foreign words and terms, behind which it is impossible to understand the case itself: for that sake, for the sake of you, henceforth, your communications to us should be written in Russian, without using foreign words and terms."
Borrowing in the 18th-19th centuries
A great contribution to the study and ordering of foreign borrowings was made by M.V. Lomonosov, who in his work "Reader on the History of Russian Linguistics" presented his observations about Greek words in Russian in general, and in the field of the formation of scientific terms in particular.
“... Avoiding foreign language borrowings, Lomonosov at the same time sought to promote the convergence of Russian science with Western European, using, on the one hand, international scientific terminology, composed mainly of Greek-Latin roots, and on the other hand, forming new Russian terms or rethinking pre-existing words "
Lomonosov believed that the Russian language had lost its stability and linguistic norm due to the "clogging" of the living spoken language with borrowings from various languages. This prompted Lomonosov to create "Prefaces on the Use of Church Books", in which he manages to lay the foundations of the Russian language, corresponding to the time.
Active political and social ties with France in the 18th-19th centuries contributed to the penetration of a large number of borrowings from the French language into the Russian language. The French language becomes the official language of the court aristocratic circles, the language of the secular noble salons. Borrowings of this time are the names of household items, clothing, food: the Bureau, boudoir, stained glass, couch; boot, veil, wardrobe, vest, coat, bouillon, the vinaigrette, jelly, marmalade; words from the field of art: actor, entrepreneur, poster, ballet, juggler, director; military terms: battalion, garrison, gun, squadron; socio-political terms: bourgeois, declassed, demoralization, department other.
Italian and Spanish borrowings are mainly associated with the field of art: aria, allegro, Bravo, cello, short story, piano, recitative, tenor(Italian) or guitar, mantilla, castanets, serenade(Spanish), as well as with everyday concepts: currency, villa; vermicelli, pasta(Italian).
By the end of the 18th century. the process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached a high degree of development. The old book linguistic culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, deliberately uses Church Slavism and Western European borrowings.
Borrowing in the XX-XXI centuries
Leonid Petrovich Krysin in his work "On the Russian language of our days" analyzes the flow of foreign language vocabulary at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. In his opinion, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the intensification of business, scientific, trade, cultural ties, the flourishing of foreign tourism, all this caused an intensification of communication with native speakers of foreign languages. Thus, first in the professional, and then in other areas, terms related to computer technology appeared (for example, a computer, display, file, interface, a printer other); economic and financial terms (e.g. barter, broker, voucher, dealer other); sports names ( windsurfing, skateboard, arm wrestling, kickboxing); in less specialized areas of human activity ( image, presentation, nomination, sponsor, video, show).
Many of these words have already been completely assimilated into the Russian language.
Word formation using borrowings
In addition to borrowing foreign language vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign language derivational elements to create Russian words proper. Among such borrowings, a separate mention is
- prefixes a-, anti-, archi-, pan- and others from Greek ( apolitical, antiworlds, archiplutes, pan-slavism); de-, counter-, trance-, ultra- from Latin ( degeroization, counteroffensive, trans-oblast, far right);
- suffixes: -ism, -PCS, -izir-a(th), -er from Western European languages: collectivism, essayist, militarize, suitor.
At the same time, these word-formation elements are often used in the Russian language together with the word-formation model, which is characteristic of foreign words or elements of this model ((fr.) conductor, trainee and (Russian) suitor with a French suffix). This reveals the regularity of the introduction of foreign language borrowings into the Russian language and their active assimilation to the borrowed language.
Thus, the formation of foreign language structural elements as independent morphemes in the Russian language occurs, in other words, the process of morphemization is carried out. It is clear that this is a long-term, gradual process, involving a number of stages and stages of acquisition by a foreign language structural element of morphemic properties in Russian.
Quotes
The aphorism of the Russian poet V.A. Zhukovsky:
Academician A. A. Shakhmatov:
Notes (edit)
Literature
- L. V. Shcherba Selected works on the Russian language, Aspect Press, 2007 ISBN 9785756704532.
- Sobolevsky A.I. History of the Russian literary language. Languages of Slavic Culture 2006 ISBN 5-95510-128-4.
- Filkova P. D. On the assimilation of Church Slavicisms by the lexical system of the Russian literary language // Questions of the historical lexicology of East Slavic languages. - M., 1974.
- Explanatory dictionary of the modern Russian language. Language changes at the end of the twentieth century, Astrel, 2005, ISBN 5-17-029554-5.
- L. P. Krysin Russian word, one's own and another's, 2004, ISBN 5-94457-183-7.
- Brandt R.F. Lectures on the History of the Russian Language 2005, ISBN 5-484-00038-6.
- Demyanov V.G. Foreign language vocabulary in the history of the Russian language XI-XVII centuries. Problems of morphological adaptation Science, 2001, ISBN 5-02-011821-4.
- Uspensky B.A. Historical and philological essays, Languages of Slavic culture, ISBN 5-95510-044-X.
- Lotte D.S. Issues of borrowing and ordering foreign language terms and term elements. - M., 1982.
- Vinogradov V.V., Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th-19th centuries. - M., 1938.
- Semenova M. Yu. Dictionary of Anglicisms. - Rostov n / a, 2003.
see also
- Borrowing lists in Russian from:
- Arabic
Links
- Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words, 2007, Over 25 thousand words and phrases, Library of dictionaries of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Compiled by L. P. Krysin
- Formation of the Russian Vocabulary. Mastering loan words in Russian
- Horse and horse. Turkisms in Russian. I. G. Dobrodomov's interview with Radio Liberty
- L. Bozhenko Borrowed vocabulary in modern Russian language
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what "Borrowed words in Russian" is in other dictionaries:
Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. Depending on the language from which the word was borrowed, such words are called "Anglicisms", "Arabisms", "Germanisms", etc. In some cases, the name of the borrowing ... ... Wikipedia
Borrowing foreign words is one of the ways to develop a modern language. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. Borrowing becomes the result of ties, relationships between peoples and states. The main reason ... ... Wikipedia
foreign words (loan words)- Words that came from other languages for different reasons: external and internal. 1) External reasons: a) close political, trade, economic, industrial and cultural ties between peoples - native speakers; words are borrowed together with ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
Türkisms in Russian are words borrowed from Türkic languages into Russian, Old Russian and Proto-Slavic languages in different historical periods. Through the Turkic languages, the Russian language (as well as the Western European languages) also got ... ... Wikipedia
The history of the Russian literary language, the formation and transformation of the Russian language used in literary works. The oldest surviving literary monuments date back to the 11th century. In *** centuries in Russia spread ... ... Wikipedia
Borrowings from the Chinese language that have entered Russian speech are quite few. Despite the rather long history of Russian-Chinese relations, the Chinese language has never been popular in Russia. Even in the border with ... ... Wikipedia
Below is a list of Japanese loanwords in Russian. List of Anime Wasabi Wata Bonsai Geisha Go Zen Judo Jiu Jitsu Iwashi Ikebana Kamikaze Karate Karaoke Katana Kimono Manga Mintai ... Wikipedia
This list contains a variety of record words (mainly of the Russian language). These words are extreme in terms of various criteria related to the letters and letter combinations contained in the word (large number of letters, large number ... ... Wikipedia
Words of foreign origin used in this language. According to the degree of mastery by the language of I. s. are divided into borrowed (see. Borrowings in a language), exotic words (exoticisms) and foreign language inclusions (Barbarisms). As well as… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing of words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word avoids descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, the long phrase "Trade in a certain place once a year" in Russian, it is successfully replaced by a word that came from the German language fair... In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All kinds of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, not at all decorating it. However, it should be recognized that even sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In this article, we will tell you about the successful use of foreign words and terms.
Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of Russian language and literature. Word poetry it has become so firmly embedded in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. And meanwhile, translated from Greek, it means "creation"... Word poem translates as "creation", a rhyme – "Proportionality","Consistency", the word rhythm is cognate to it. Stanza translated from Greek - "turn", a epithet – "Figurative definition".
Terms such as epic ("Collection of legends"), myth("Word", "speech"),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy("The plaintive tune of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("Wedding poem or song"),epic ("Word", "story", "song"), tragedy (Goat song), comedy(Bear holidays). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these ideas. well and scene- of course, "Tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "Singing inside out" .
If the Greeks took it upon themselves to give names to poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. No wonder it was from the Latin language that the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "Carved in stone" (short, succinct). Word text means "connection", "compound", a illustration – "Explanation"(to the text). Legend- this is "What needs to be read",memorandum – "What to remember", a opus– "Labor", "product"... Word plot translated from Latin means "Story", "legend", but in Russian it came from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- this is handwritten document, well and editor- this is the person who must "put everything in order". Madrigal- also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means song in the native, "mother" language... To end with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "All knowledge", after - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning "Letters", "letters".
But let's return to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a code of laws unique for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice ("Justice", "legality"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("The truth is spoken"), advocate(from latin "I urge"), notary– ("scribe"),protocol("First sheet"), visa ("Viewed") etc. The words version("turn") and intrigue ("Confuse") is also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word lapse – "Fall", "mistake", "wrong step". Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. Examples of borrowings from the Greek language include words such as anatomy(Dissection), agony ("wrestling"), hormone ("Set in motion"), diagnosis("definition"), diet ("Lifestyle", "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital("hospitable"), immunity ("Release from something"),disabled person ("Powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("Mouse"), obstruction (Blockage),obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").
Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existed words and terms. For example, allergy – "Other action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which sometimes represented tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("Divine inspiration") into Old Church Slavonic was translated as "Madness"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted unchanged. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- this is "Messenger", apostle –"Messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon –"Minister", bishop– "Looking from above", a sexton– "Watchman"... Word hero also Greek and means "Saint"- no more, no less! And here is the word that has become a dirty word filthy came to us from the Latin language and means only "rural"(a citizen). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenacious in the countryside, as a result of which this word became synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives of the other world. Word daemon "Deity", "spirit"... It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means“ soul ”and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions overwhelming him, knowledge of life and finding no answer to his doubts either on earth or in heaven,- this is how he explained his position. " What do the words devil and the devil mean? Heck Is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same - "Seducer", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – Contradictory, adversary, Belial- from the phrase "Useless"... Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "Liar" and "destroyer"... And here is the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel "The Master and Margarita", has a Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "Deceiver", "cheat"... In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.
Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate"... The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them "a good people" and "peaceful neighbors."
Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. Translated from Greek, it means "Inhabitant of the earth"... In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "Dark alves" or "zwergs". Brownie in Germany they call "Kobold"... Later this name was given to the metal, which had "Harmful character", - made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel called elf living by the water, a big joke lover. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.
Word the Dragon translated from Greek means Keen seeing... Interestingly, in China, this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend says that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, thunder rang out, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracan... The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "Red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "Sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "Drunk": according to legends, this stone is capable of “curbing passions,” therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone". And the word agate translated from Greek means "good" which he had to bring to his owner.
There have been cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, the words colossus, shenanigans and machines- single-rooted. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "Something huge", another - "trick"... But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.
Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains the Greek root meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word"... That is "Word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.
And the word snob interesting in that, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It comes from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ( "No nobility"), which was reduced to s. nob.: this is how passengers who were not allowed to dine with the captain began to be called on English ships. Later, in English houses, this word was put on the guest lists in front of the persons who should have been announced without a title.
What about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is unequivocally yes. There are many examples, such as the Arabic phrase "Lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.
Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "Beautiful", "smooth".Bondage- this is "Receipt", "Commitment",shackles – "Fetters", "fetters" etc. Have long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("Black or bad hand") and toddler ("Like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron evidenced by its Sanskrit origin ( "Metal", "ore"). Weight- this is "heavy"(Persian), stage –"Platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). The words bank(from "Put the ship on its side") and yacht(from "Drive") are of Dutch origin. The words rush ("Up all"- over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers, probably, more than once were surprised that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in corduroy suits and dresses. From the German language came the words cabin boy("boy"), tie("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("Pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") - Italian. Scam ("a business"), gauze ("Muslin"), balance ("scales"),compliment("Hey"), negligee ("negligence") - French.
Italian and French have given birth to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here is some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the authorities of Venice to turn 4 convents into music schools (18th century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from italian cantare –"sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a piece with a galloping, "like a goat", changing themes and moods), opera –"writing", tutti – "Performance by the whole composition".
Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "Tidying up", overture from the word "open", benefit – "Profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration –"decoration", pointe shoes(solid toe ballet shoes) - "Edge", "tip",divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "Hearth"... And in modern pop music, the word is very popular plywood which comes from German "Overlay"(voice to already recorded music).
Speaking of borrowing from French, one cannot ignore the culinary theme. So the word garnish comes from the French "Supply", "equip".Glace- means Frozen, icy. Cutlet – "Rib". Consomme – "bouillon".Langet – "Tongue". Marinade– "Put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting"... Word the vinaigrette- exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre - "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".
It is interesting that many dog names popular in our country have foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. Landowners, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs in their country estates (and even took bribes with "greyhound puppies") and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native, they gave their dogs foreign names. Some of them have spread widely among the people. What familiar word could a peasant with a nickname who did not know French hear? Сheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(fr.), nickname Watchdog comes from the French word "bearded", a Rex- this is "Tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames have come from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby,Bug and Julia descended from Julie... And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.
Well, what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages of the world man... Word Granny in English it is used in the meaning "Female headscarf", a pancakes in Britain they call small round sandwiches... Word vulgarity got into the dictionary of the English language because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, desperate to find its full-fledged analogue, in one of his novels decided to leave it without translation.
The words satellite and comrade known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner - not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms have made a triumphal march across the world perestroika and glasnost. The words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika so often and inappropriately used by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, is frankly ashamed. The words intelligentsia(author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "by origin", but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they switched to many foreign ones and became widespread throughout the world.
In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared relatively recently in the Russian language. So, the appearance of words acid, refraction, equilibrium we must M.V. Lomonosov.N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with words influence, industry, social, useful, touching, entertaining, focused.