Greetings to history lovers and curious readers! Vikings: who are they and where are they from? The article briefly tells about the Vikings, early medieval Scandinavian sailors, in the VIII-XI centuries. who made sea trips.
These were tribes in the stage of disintegration of the tribal system, living in the territory of modern Sweden, Denmark and Norway, which were pushed outside their native countries by overpopulation and hunger. In the chronicles of Kievan Rus, they were known as the Varangians.
Where did the Vikings come from?
In the summer of 789, one incident occurred in one of the coastal settlements of the Kingdom of Wessex. Three boats moored to the shore, from which came tall men with blond hair and beards. Tan Beokhtrik met them with a small squad.
After a short conversation, a quarrel broke out. The strangers killed the Thane with his people, took the weapon and sailed away to no one knows where. If medieval chroniclers noted every internecine conflict of the Anglo-Saxons of that time, then no books would have been enough. But this episode made it into the chronicles precisely because it was the beginning of a new era.
The Anglo-Saxons and their closest neighbors, the Irish, Scots and Welsh, have been Christians for over two centuries. And the inhabitants of the continent, Franks, Bretons, Germans, professed the faith of Christ even longer.
The bearded strangers who came were pagans. This circumstance attracted the attention of the medieval chronicler, who described, in fact, the first meeting with the Vikings - a force that changed the borders, culture and even the demographic situation in Europe over the next three centuries.
Scandinavia in the early Middle Ages
The settlement of the Scandinavian Islands took place long before the onset of our era. The first settlements are dated by archaeologists to the Mesolithic era. But the isolation and inaccessibility of the Scandinavian Peninsula contributed to the fact that the population of this harsh land remained far from the events in Europe.
The great migration of peoples only remotely affected Scandinavia. The fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent formation of states with their constant wars, the spread of Christianity - all this did not affect the harsh land of fjords.
The inhabitants of these places had their own culture and religion. They solved their problems and would not have floated anywhere if insurmountable circumstances had not forced them to withdraw from their homes.
The reason that made the Vikings seek their fortune overseas was climate change. Around the 6th century, the average temperature in Europe dropped sharply by several degrees. The lands, especially in the north, became unsuitable for agriculture and could not feed all people.
Even in the northern regions of present-day France, many fields were abandoned. What can we say about snow-covered Norway, where mountains predominate. And only narrow valleys along the river banks are suitable for the economy.
It was precisely the lack of means of food that forced many of the younger sons in the family, who could not inherit the inheritance, poor landless peasants and simply adventure seekers, to go overseas.
Drakars
The military successes of the Vikings were promoted by their unusual ships - Drakars. These combat boats could accommodate about 20 oarsmen, had a shallow draft, could paddle and sail both on the sea and along river beds, even the smallest ones.
The first boat, the Hjortspring Boat, which became the prototype of the Drakars, dates back to the 4th century. It was discovered in Denmark.
The Vikings were excellent sailors. Knowing the coastline well and being able to enter the rivers, these fearless warriors always attacked suddenly, quickly and in the most unexpected places and always left before the enemy could muster forces to repel the attack.
Viking travel map
The Europeans were completely unprepared for an attack from the sea. Small detachments of well-armed, strong warriors who appeared out of nowhere panicked the inhabitants of not only the English isles, but also the inhabitants of the continent.
"A furore Normannorum libera nos, Domine!"
Frequent and always brutal Viking raids became a real disaster for Christians in the 6th-10th centuries. In the prayers, there was even a special petition "Save us, Lord, from the wrath of the Normans!"
Indeed, pirates in essence, driven from their native lands by hunger and poverty, the Vikings could only count on what they would get with the sword. The craft, condemned at first even in Scandinavia, gradually gained respect, supported by the cult of the war gods Thor, Odin and others.
Over time, not only the inhabitants of Scandinavia, but also the Danes, Balts, and Slavs were included in the Viking detachments.
The very word "Viking" in translation means "inhabitant of the gulf". Viking is not a nationality, but a certain social status. These are homeless bandits who robbed everything and everyone, even the nearest neighbors. But under the influence of unforgiving time, this trouble was also gone.
Gradually, the Vikings, having quenched and lost their original cruelty, took up trade and politics. They made a number of geographical discoveries (Iceland, Greenland, America).
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This video contains interesting and additional information on the topic "Vikings: who are they and where are they from?"
They say, "scratch a Russian - you will find a Tatar." With the same confidence one can say: "Scratch a Russian - you will find a Varangian."
Scratch the Viking ...
Vikings are not a nationality, but a vocation. “People from the Bay” - this is how this warlike word is translated from the ancient Norwegian language - caused a lot of trouble for the civilized world at the turn of the second millennium. Sea nomads kept Europe at bay, from the British Isles to Sicily. In Russia, statehood appeared largely thanks to the Vikings.
Among the Vikings, the Scandinavians-Germans predominated. Notoriety about them went from the Caspian to the Mediterranean. In addition, the Slavs-Pomors and Curonian Balts were Vikings, who kept the entire Baltic Sea in tension in the 8th-9th centuries.
According to the Roewer Genetic Laboratory, published in 2008, up to 18% of Russians are descendants of immigrants from Northern Europe. These are the owners of haplogroup I1, which is common for Norway and Sweden, but not typical for Russia. "Descendants of the Vikings" are found not only in the northern, but also in the southern cities.
In Russia, the Scandinavians were known as Varangians, rusov and kolbyagov... At this time in the West, only the name was in use Normans -"Northern people".
Rus
According to one hypothesis, the Rus were a Swedish tribe. Finns still remember this and call them ruotsi and Estonians - rootsi. Ruothi call themselves the Swedish Sami. The Komi and the eastern Finno-Ugric tribes already call the Russians themselves - rot ’s, ruts... This word in both Finnish and European languages goes back to the designation of red or red.
We say "Rus", we mean "Swedes". In this form, they are mentioned in the documents of Byzantium and European states. “Russian names” in documents and treaties of the 9th-10th centuries turned out to be Scandinavian. The customs and appearance of the Rus were described in detail by Arab historians and are suspiciously similar to the way of life and appearance of the Swedish Vikings.
For "people from the bay" the Russian lands did not represent a wide area for sea voyages. And yet, the riches of the eastern worlds attracted the most adventurous. Settlements of the Rus spread along the main waterways - the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina and Ladoga.
Ladoga is the first Scandinavian city in Russia. Legends mention it as the Aldeigjuborg fortress. It was built in about 753, located opposite the successful trading fortress of the Slavs. Here the Russians mastered the Arab technology of making money. These were eye-shaped beads, the first Russian money for which one could buy a slave or a slave.
The main occupations of the Rus were the slave trade, plundering of local tribes and attacks on merchants. A century after the founding of Ladoga, they learned about the tricks of the Russians in the Arab Caliphate and Europe. The Khazars were the first to complain. The raids of the Rus harmed their traditional craft - with the help of extortions and duties, to "skim the cream" from trade between the West and the East. In the 9th century, the Rus were the most hated tribe. They overpowered the Byzantines on the Black Sea and threatened to create a "desert storm" for the Arabs.
Varangians
The Varangians are mentioned in Russian chronicles, first of all, not as a people, but as a military estate of "overseas" origin. Under the name "varangi" (or "verings") they served Byzantium and helped to protect its borders from the raids of their fellow tribesmen - the Rus.
"The vocation of the Varangians" is a vivid example of effective management. The overseas prince no longer served the interests of clans, tribes and clans, pursuing an independent policy. Chud, Slovenia, Krivichi and all were able to "pause" constant strife and occupy the Varangians with affairs of state importance.
The Varangians adopted Christianity before it became mainstream in Russia. Pectoral crosses accompanied the burials of warriors as early as the 9th century. If we understand "the baptism of Rus" literally, then it happened a century earlier - in 867. After another unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople, the Russians, having changed their tactics, decided to forgive their sins and sent an embassy to Byzantium in order to be baptized. Where these Rus ended up later is unknown, but half a century later Helg visited the Romans, who, by a misunderstanding, turned out to be a pagan.
Gardar and Biarmland
In the Scandinavian sagas, Russia was called Garðar, literally - "fence", the outskirts of the world of people, behind which the monsters were located. The place is not the most attractive, not for everybody. According to another version, this word meant "guards" - fortified bases of the Vikings in Russia. In later texts (XIV century) the name was rethought as Garðaríki- "country of cities", which more reflected the reality.
According to the sagas, the cities of Gardariki were: Surnes, Palteskja, Holmgard, Kenugard, Rostofa, Surdalar, Moramar. Not possessing the gift of providence, in them you can recognize the cities of Ancient Rus familiar to us: Smolensk (or Chernigov), Polotsk, Novgorod, Kiev, Rostov, Murom. Smolensk and Chernigov can compete for the name "Surnes" quite legitimately: not far from both cities, archaeologists have found the largest Scandinavian settlements.
Arab writers knew a lot about the Russians. They mentioned their main cities - Arsu, Cuiaba and Salau. Unfortunately, poetic Arabic does not convey names well. If Cuyaba can be translated as “Kiev”, and Salau as the legendary city “Slovensk”, then nothing can be said about Arsa. In Ars, all foreigners were killed and nothing was reported about their trade. Some see Ars as Rostov, Rusu or Ryazan, but the mystery is far from being solved.
A dark story with Biarmia, which the Scandinavian legends placed in the northeast. Finnish tribes and mysterious biarms lived there. They spoke a language similar to Finnish, and mysteriously disappeared in the 13th century, by the time the Novgorodians came to these lands. These lands are described as reminiscent of Russian Pomorie. The Scandinavians left few traces here: in the vicinity of Arkhangelsk they found only weapons and decorations of the X-XII centuries.
First princes
Historians trust the annals, but do not believe and like to find fault with words. Confused by the "white spot" in the testimonies of the first Varangian princes. The texts say that Oleg reigned in Novgorod and took tribute from him, which is a contradiction. This gave rise to the version of the "first capital" of Russia near Smolensk, where there was the largest Scandinavian settlement. At the same time, Ukrainian scientists are also adding fuel to the fire. They claim that they have found the grave of the "Varangian prince" near Chernigov.
According to the documents, the names of the first Russian princes sounded differently than in the Tale of Bygone Years. If there is almost no news about Rurik, then Igor "according to his passport" was Inger, Oleg and Olga were Helg and Helga, and Svyatoslav was Sfendoslav. The first princes of Kiev - Askold and Dir - were Scandinavians. The names of the princes Turov and Polotsk - Tur, Rogneda and Rogvolod - are also credited with Scandinavian roots. In the 11th century, Russian rulers "became glorified" so much that the Scandinavian princely names were rather a rare exception.
The fate of the Vikings
The state of Rurik by the X-XII became very rich, and could afford to simply "buy" the Varangians needed for service. They were left in the city garrisons and squads. Viking attacks on Russian cities would be pointless. It was easier to get a good salary for the service.
In the cities, the common people often did not get along with the Varangians - there were clashes. Soon the situation began to get out of control and Yaroslav Vladimirovich had to introduce "concepts" - Russian truth. This is how the first legal document in the history of Russia appeared.
The Viking Age ends in the 12th century. In Russia, mentions of the Varangians disappear from the chronicles by the 13th century, and the Rus are dissolved in the Slavic Russian people.
The medieval era of the Vikings dates back to the period of the VIII-XI centuries, when brave robbers from Scandinavia roamed the European seas. Their raids instilled terror in the civilized inhabitants of the Old World. The Vikings were not only robbers, but also traders and pioneers. By religion, they were pagans.
The emergence of the Vikings
In the VIII century, the inhabitants of the territory of modern Norway, Sweden and Denmark began to build the fastest ships at that time and set off on them on long journeys. The harsh nature of their native lands pushed them to these adventures. Agriculture in Scandinavia was poorly developed due to the cold climate. The modest harvest did not allow local residents to feed their families to their fullest. Thanks to the robberies, the Vikings became noticeably rich, which gave them the opportunity not only to buy food, but also to trade with their neighbors.
The first attack by sailors on neighboring countries took place in 789. Then the robbers attacked Dorset in the south-west of England, killed ten and robbed the city. This is how the Viking Age began. Another important reason for the emergence of mass piracy was the decomposition of the old system based on community and clan. The nobility, who increased their influence, began to create the first prototypes of states on For such jarls, robberies became a source of wealth and influence among compatriots.
Skillful sailors
The key reason for the conquests and geographical discoveries of the Vikings was their ships, which were much better than any other European ones. The warships of the Scandinavians were called Drakkars. Seafarers often used them as their own home. Such ships were mobile. They could be carried ashore with relative ease. At first the ships were oars, later they got sails.
Drakkars were distinguished by their graceful shape, speed, reliability and lightness. They were designed specifically for shallow rivers. Entering them, the Vikings could go deep into the ruined country. Such voyages came as a complete surprise to the Europeans. As a rule, drakkars were built from ash wood. They are an important symbol that early medieval history left behind. The era of the Vikings is not only a period of conquest, but also a period of development of trade. For this purpose, the Scandinavians used special merchant ships - knorrs. They were wider and deeper than the Drakkars. Much more goods could be loaded onto such ships.
The Viking Age in Northern Europe was marked by the development of navigation. The Scandinavians did not have any special devices (for example, a compass), but they did just fine with the hints of nature. These navigators thoroughly knew the habits of birds and took them on a voyage to determine if there was land nearby (if it was not there, the birds returned to the ship). Also, the researchers were guided by the sun, stars and the moon.
Raids on Britain
The first Scandinavian raids into England were short-lived. They plundered defenseless monasteries and quickly returned to the sea. However, gradually the Vikings began to lay claim to the lands of the Anglo-Saxons. There was no single kingdom in Britain at that time. The island was divided among several rulers. In 865, the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok sailed to Northumbria, but his ships ran aground and crashed. The uninvited guests were surrounded and taken prisoner. King Ella II of Northumbria executed Ragnar by ordering him to be thrown into a pit full of poisonous snakes.
The death of Lodbrok did not go unpunished. Two years later, the Great Pagan Army landed on the coast of England. This army was led by the many sons of Ragnar. The Vikings conquered East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The rulers of these kingdoms were executed. The last stronghold of the Anglo-Saxons was South Wessex. His king Alfred the Great, realizing that his forces were not enough to fight the invaders, concluded a peace treaty with them, and then, in 886, completely recognized their possessions in Britain.
Conquest of England
It took Alfred and his son Edward the Elder four decades to clear their homeland of foreigners. Mercia and East Anglia were liberated by 924. In remote northern Northumbria, Viking rule continued for another thirty years.
After some lull, the Scandinavians again began to appear frequently off the British coast. Another wave of raids began in 980, and in 1013 Sven Forkbeard completely captured the country and became its king. His son Cnut the Great for three decades ruled three monarchies at once: England, Denmark and Norway. After his death, the former dynasty from Wessex regained power, and foreigners left Britain.
In the 11th century, the Scandinavians made several more attempts to conquer the island, but they all failed. The era of the Vikings, in short, left a noticeable imprint on the culture and state structure of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Danelag, a system of law adopted from the Scandinavians, was established in the territory that the Danes had for some time. This region was isolated from other English provinces throughout the Middle Ages.
Normans and Franks
In the era of the Vikings, the period of the attacks of the Normans is called. Under this name the Scandinavians were remembered by contemporaries-Catholics. If the Vikings sailed to the west mainly in order to plunder England, then in the south the goal of their campaigns was the Frankish Empire. It was created in 800 by Charlemagne. While under him and under his son Louis the Pious, a single strong state was preserved, the country was reliably protected from the pagans.
However, when the empire split into three kingdoms, and they, in turn, began to suffer from the costs of the feudal system, dizzying opportunities opened up for the Vikings. Some Scandinavians plundered the coast every year, while others were hired to serve the Catholic rulers in order to protect Christians for a generous salary. During one of their raids, the Vikings even took over Paris.
In 911, King of the Franks Charles the Rustic gave the Vikings. This region became known as Normandy. Its rulers were baptized. This tactic has proven to be effective. More and more Vikings gradually switched to a sedentary lifestyle. But some daredevils continued their campaigns. So, in 1130, the Normans conquered the south of Italy and created the Kingdom of Sicily.
Scandinavian discovery of America
Moving further west, the Vikings discovered Ireland. They frequently raided the island and left a significant imprint on the local Celtic culture. For more than two centuries, the Scandinavians ruled Dublin. In about 860, the Vikings discovered Iceland ("Iceland"). They became the first inhabitants of this deserted island. Iceland proved to be a popular colonization destination. The inhabitants of Norway, who fled the country due to frequent civil wars, aspired there.
In 900, a Viking ship accidentally lost its way stumbled upon Greenland. The first colonies appeared there at the end of the 10th century. This discovery inspired other Vikings to continue their search for a way west. They rightly hoped that there would be new lands far beyond the sea. The navigator reached the shores of North America around 1000 and landed on the Labrador Peninsula. He called this region Vinland. Thus, the Viking Age was marked by the discovery of America five centuries before the expedition of Christopher Columbus.
Rumors about this country were fragmentary and did not leave the borders of Scandinavia. In Europe, they never learned about the western mainland. Viking settlements in Vinland lasted for several decades. Three attempts were made to colonize this land, but they all failed. The Indians attacked the strangers. Keeping in touch with the colonies was extremely difficult due to the vast distances. Eventually the Scandinavians left America. Much later, archaeologists found traces of their settlement in Newfoundland, Canada.
Vikings and Russia
In the second half of the 8th century, Viking detachments began to attack the lands inhabited by numerous Finno-Ugric peoples. This is evidenced by the finds of archaeologists discovered in the Russian Staraya Ladoga. If in Europe the Vikings were called Normans, then the Slavs named them Varangians. The Scandinavians controlled several commercial ports along the Baltic Sea in Prussia. Here the lucrative amber route began, along which amber was transported in the Mediterranean.
How did the Viking Age affect Russia? In short, thanks to newcomers from Scandinavia, the East Slavic statehood was born. According to the official version, the residents of Novgorod, who often contacted the Vikings, turned to them for help during the internal civil strife. So the Varangian Rurik was invited to reign. From him came a dynasty, which in the near future united Russia and began to rule in Kiev.
Life of the inhabitants of Scandinavia
In their homeland, the Vikings lived in large peasant dwellings. One such building housed a family that included three generations at once. Children, parents, grandparents lived together. This custom was an echo. Houses were built from wood and clay. The roofs were peaty. In the central large room there was a common hearth, behind which they not only ate, but also slept.
Even when the era of the Vikings came, their cities in Scandinavia remained very small, inferior in size even to the settlements of the Slavs. People concentrated mainly around craft and trade centers. Cities were built in the depths of the fjords. This was done in order to get a convenient harbor and in the event of an attack by the enemy fleet to know in advance about its approach.
Scandinavian peasants dressed in woolen shirts and short baggy trousers. The Viking Age costume was rather austere due to the scarcity of raw materials in Scandinavia. The wealthy upper classes could wear colorful clothes that set them apart from the crowd, showing wealth and position. The female costume of the Viking Age necessarily included accessories - metal jewelry, a brooch, pendants and belt buckles. If a girl was married, she put her hair in a bun, unmarried ones picked up her hair with a ribbon.
Viking armor and weapons
In modern popular culture, the image of a Viking with a horned helmet on his head is widespread. In fact, such hats were rare and were no longer used for combat, but for rituals. The clothing of the Viking Age included light armor, obligatory for all men.
Weapons were much more varied. The northerners often used a spear about one and a half meters long, with which it was possible to chop and stab the enemy. But the sword remained the most widespread. These weapons were very light compared to other types that appeared in the subsequent Middle Ages. The Viking Age sword was not necessarily produced in Scandinavia itself. Warriors often purchased Frankish weapons, as they were of the best quality. The Vikings also had long knives - the Saxons.
The inhabitants of Scandinavia made bows from ash or yew. Braided hair was often used as a bowstring. Axes were a common melee weapon. The Vikings preferred a wide, symmetrically diverging blade.
Last Normans
The end of the Viking Age came in the first half of the 11th century. It was driven by several factors. Firstly, in Scandinavia, the old clan system finally disintegrated. It was replaced by classical medieval feudalism with overlords and vassals. Remained in the past and half of the inhabitants of Scandinavia settled in their homeland.
The end of the Viking Age came also due to the spread of Christianity among the northerners. The new faith, in contrast to the pagan, opposed bloody campaigns to a foreign land. Gradually, many rituals of sacrifices were forgotten, etc. The first to be baptized was the nobility, who, with the help of the new faith, was legitimized in the eyes of the rest of the civilized European community. Following the rulers and the aristocracy, ordinary residents did the same.
In the changed conditions, the Vikings, who wanted to connect their lives with military affairs, went into mercenaries and served with foreign sovereigns. For example, the Byzantine emperors had their own Varangian guards. The inhabitants of the north were valued for their physical strength, unpretentiousness in everyday life and many combat skills. The last Viking to rule in the classical sense of the word was the King of Norway, Harald III the Severe. He went to England and tried to conquer it, but died at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. Then came the end of the Viking Age. William the Conqueror from Normandy (himself also a descendant of Scandinavian sailors) in the same year conquered England.
For several centuries, before and after 1000, Western Europe was constantly attacked by "Vikings" - warriors who sailed on ships from Scandinavia. Therefore, the period from about 800 to 1100. AD in the history of Northern Europe is called the "Viking Age". Those who were attacked by the Vikings perceived their campaigns as purely predatory, but they pursued other goals.
At the head of the Viking detachments were usually representatives of the ruling elite of the Scandinavian society - kings and Hövdings. By robbery, they acquired wealth, which they then shared among themselves and with their people. Victories in foreign countries brought them fame and position. Already in the early stages, the leaders also began to pursue political goals and take control of territories in the conquered countries. There is little in the chronicles to suggest that trade increased significantly during the Viking Age, but archaeological finds bear witness to this. In Western Europe, cities flourished, the first urban formations appeared in Scandinavia. The first city in Sweden was Birka, located on an island on Lake Mälaren, about 30 kilometers west of Stockholm. This city existed from the end of the 8th to the end of the 10th century; his successor in the Mälaren area was the town of Sigtuna, which today is an idyllic small town about 40 kilometers northwest of Stockholm.
The Viking era is also characterized by the fact that many inhabitants of Scandinavia forever left their native places and settled in foreign countries, mainly as farmers. Many Scandinavians, primarily from Denmark, settled in the eastern part of England, undoubtedly with the support of the Scandinavian kings and Hövdings who ruled there. The Scottish Islands were undergoing large-scale Norwegian colonization; Norwegians also sailed the Atlantic Ocean to previously unknown, uninhabited places: the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland (even attempts were made to settle in North America). During the XII-XIII centuries, vivid stories about the Viking era were recorded in Iceland, not entirely reliable, but still irreplaceable as historical sources that give an idea of the pagan faith and the way of thinking of people of that time.
The contacts made during the Viking Age with the outside world radically changed the Scandinavian society. Missionaries from Western Europe arrived in Scandinavia as early as the first century of the Viking Age. The most famous of these is Ansgari, the "Scandinavian apostle" who was sent by the Frankish king Louis the Pious to Birka around 830 and returned there again around 850. In the later period of the Viking Age, an intensive process of Christianization began. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish kings realized the power that Christian civilization and organization could give to their states, and they carried out a change of religions. The process of Christianization was most difficult in Sweden, where at the end of the 11th century there was a fierce struggle between Christians and pagans.
The era of the Vikings in the East.
Not only did the Scandinavians go west, but they also made long voyages east during the same centuries. For natural reasons, residents of the places now belonging to Sweden rushed in this direction, first of all. The voyages to the east and the influence of the eastern countries left a special imprint on the Viking Age in Sweden. Voyages to the east were also undertaken, whenever possible, by ships - through the Baltic Sea, along the rivers of Eastern Europe to the Black and Caspian Seas, and, along them, to the great powers south of these seas: Christian Byzantium in the territory of modern Greece and Turkey and the Islamic Caliphate in eastern lands. Here, as well as to the west, ships went by oars and under sail, but these ships were smaller than those used for cruises in the westerly direction. Their usual length was about 10 meters, and the team consisted of approximately 10 people. Larger ships were not needed to navigate the Baltic Sea, and besides, they could not move along the rivers.
Artist V. Vasnetsov "The Calling of the Varangians". 862 - the invitation of the Varangians Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor.
This fact, that treks to the east are less well known than treks to the west, is partly due to the fact that there are not many written sources about them. It was not until the later period of the Viking Age that writing began to be used in Eastern Europe. However, from Byzantium and the Caliphate, which were the real great powers of the Viking Age from an economic and cultural point of view, modern descriptions of travel are known to this era, as well as historical and geographical works telling about the peoples of Eastern Europe and describing trade travels and military campaigns from Eastern Europe to countries south of the Black and Caspian Seas. Sometimes we can spot Scandinavians among the characters in these images. As historical sources, these images are often more reliable and more complete than Western European chronicles written by monks and bearing a strong imprint of their Christian zeal and hatred of pagans. A large number of Swedish runestones are also known from the 11th century, almost all from the vicinity of Lake Mälaren; they are installed in memory of relatives who often traveled to the east. As for Eastern Europe, there is a wonderful Tale of Bygone Years dating back to the beginning of the 12th century. and telling about the ancient history of the Russian state - not always reliably, but always alive and with an abundance of details, which greatly distinguishes it from Western European chronicles and gives it a charm comparable to the charm of the Icelandic sagas.
Ros - Rus - Ruotsi (Rhos - Rus - Ruotsi).
In 839, an ambassador from Emperor Theophilus from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) arrived to the Frankish king Louis the Pious, who was at that time in Ingelheim on the Rhine. The ambassador also brought several people from the "ros" people, who traveled to Constantinople by such dangerous routes that they now wanted to return home through the kingdom of Louis. When the king inquired about these people in more detail, it turned out that they were sves. Louis knew the pagan Svei well, since he himself had previously sent Ansgaria as a missionary to their trading city of Birka. The king began to suspect that the people who called themselves "grew" were in fact spies, and decided to detain them until he found out their intentions. Such a story is contained in one Frankish chronicle. Unfortunately, it is not known what later happened to these people.
This story is important for studying the Viking Age in Scandinavia. He and some other manuscripts from Byzantium and the Caliphate more or less clearly show that in the east in the 8th – 9th centuries the Scandinavians were called "ros" / "rus" (rhos / rus). At the same time, this name was used to designate the Old Russian state, or, as it is often called, Kievan Rus (see map). The state grew during these centuries, and modern Russia, Belarus and Ukraine originate from it.
The ancient history of this state is told in the Tale of Bygone Years, which was recorded in its capital, Kiev, shortly after the end of the Viking Age. In the record about the year 862, one can read that the country was in turmoil, and it was decided to look for a ruler on the other side of the Baltic Sea. Were equipped with ambassadors to the Varangians (that is, the Scandinavians), namely to those who were called "Rus"; Rurik and his two brothers were invited to rule the country. They came "from all over Russia", and Rurik settled in Novgorod. “And from these Varangians the Russian land got its name”. After the death of Rurik, the reign passed to his cousin Oleg, who conquered Kiev and made this city the capital of his state, and after the death of Oleg, Rurik's son Igor became prince.
The legend about the vocation of the Varangians, contained in the Tale of Bygone Years, is a story about the origin of the ancient Russian princely family, and as a historical source it is very controversial. They tried to explain the name "rus" in many ways, but now the most widespread opinion is that this name should be compared with the names from the Finnish and Estonian languages - Ruotsi / Rootsi, which today mean "Sweden", and previously indicated the peoples from Sweden or Scandinavia. This name, in turn, comes from the Old Scandinavian word meaning "rowing", "rowing expedition", "members of the rowing expedition." It is obvious that the people who lived on the western coast of the Baltic Sea were famous for their sea voyages with oars. Reliable sources about Rurik do not exist, and it is not known how he and his "Rus" came to Eastern Europe - however, it hardly happened as simply and peacefully as the legend says. When the clan established itself as one of the rulers in Eastern Europe, soon the state itself and its inhabitants began to be called "Rus". The names of the ancient princes indicate that the family was of Scandinavian origin: Rurik is the Scandinavian Rorek, a common name in Sweden even in the late Middle Ages, Oleg - Helge, Igor - Ingvar, Olga (Igor's wife) - Helga.
To speak more definitely about the role of the Scandinavians in the early history of Eastern Europe, it is not enough just to study a few written sources, one must also take into account the archaeological finds. They exhibit a significant number of items of Scandinavian origin dating back to the 9th – 10th centuries in the ancient part of Novgorod (the Rurik settlement outside modern Novgorod), in Kiev and in many other places. We are talking about, weapons, horse harness, as well as household items, and magical and religious amulets, for example, Thor's hammers, found at the sites of settlements, in burials and hoards.
Obviously, in the region under consideration there were many Scandinavians who were engaged not only in war and politics, but also in trade, crafts and agriculture - after all, the Scandinavians themselves came from agricultural societies, where urban culture, just like in Eastern Europe, began to develop only during these centuries. In many places, the northerners left clear imprints of Scandinavian elements in culture - in clothing and jewelry making, in weapons and religion. But it is also clear that the Scandinavians lived in societies based on the structure of Eastern European culture. The central part of the early cities was usually a densely populated fortress - Detinets or the Kremlin. Such fortified cores of urban formations are not found in Scandinavia, but for a long time they were characteristic of Eastern Europe. The construction method in the places where the Scandinavians settled was mainly Eastern European, and most of the household items, for example, household ceramics, also bore a local imprint. Foreign influence on culture came not only from Scandinavia, but also from countries in the east, south and southwest.
When Christianity was officially adopted in the Old Russian state in 988, the Scandinavian features soon practically disappeared from its culture. Slavic and Christian Byzantine cultures became the main components in the culture of the state, and Slavic became the language of the state and the church.
Caliphate - Serkland.
How and why did the Scandinavians participate in the development of events that ultimately led to the formation of the Russian state? It was probably not only war and adventure, but also, to a large extent, trade. The leading civilization of the world during this period was the Caliphate - an Islamic state that stretched eastward to Afghanistan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia; there, far to the east, were the largest silver mines of that time. A huge amount of Islamic silver in the form of coins with Arabic inscriptions spread throughout Eastern Europe as far as the Baltic Sea and Scandinavia. The largest number of finds of silver objects was made in Gotland. A number of luxury goods are also known from the territory of the Russian state and the mainland of Sweden, primarily from the area around Lake Mälaren, which indicate ties with the East, which were of a more social nature, for example, details of clothing or banquet items.When Islamic written sources mention "rus" - by which, generally speaking, one can mean both the Scandinavians and other peoples from the Old Russian state, interest is manifested primarily in their trading activity, although there are also stories about military campaigns, for example, against the city Berd in Azerbaijan in 943 or 944. In the world geography of Ibn Khordadbeh it is said that Russian merchants sold skins of beavers and silver foxes, as well as swords. They came on ships to the lands of the Khazars, and, having paid their tithe to their prince, went further along the Caspian Sea. They often carried their goods on camels all the way to Baghdad, the capital of the Caliphate. "They pretend to be Christians and pay the tax set for Christians." Ibn Khordadbeh was the minister of security in one of the provinces along the caravan route to Baghdad, and he perfectly understood that these people were not Christians. The reason they called themselves Christians was purely economic - Christians paid a lower tax than pagans who worshiped many gods.
Besides fur, slaves were perhaps the most important commodity coming from the north. In the Caliphate, slaves were used as labor in most public sectors, and the Scandinavians, like other peoples, were able to obtain slaves during their military and predatory campaigns. Ibn Khordadbeh says that slaves from the country of "Saklaba" (roughly means "Eastern Europe") served as translators for the Russians in Baghdad.
The flow of silver from the Caliphate dried up at the end of the 10th century. Perhaps the reason was the fact that the production of silver in mines in the east declined, possibly influenced by the war and turmoil that reigned in the steppes between Eastern Europe and the Caliphate. But another thing is also likely - that in the Caliphate they began to conduct experiments to reduce the content of silver in the coin, and in this regard, interest in coins in Eastern and Northern Europe was lost. The aeonomy in these territories was not monetary; the value of a coin was calculated by its purity and weight. Silver coins and ingots were chopped into pieces and weighed on scales to get the price that a person was willing to pay for the goods. Silver of varying purity has made this type of payment transaction difficult or nearly impossible. Therefore, the views of Northern and Eastern Europe turned towards Germany and England, where in the late period of the Viking Age a large number of full-weight silver coins were minted, which were distributed in Scandinavia, as well as in some regions of the Russian state.
However, even in the XI century it happened that the Scandinavians reached the Caliphate, or Serkland, as they called this state. The most famous expedition of the Swedish Vikings in this century was led by Ingvar, whom the Icelanders called Ingvar the Traveler. An Icelandic saga has been written about him, but it is very unreliable, but about 25 East Swedish runestones tell about the people who accompanied Ingvar. All these stones indicate that the campaign ended in disaster. On one of the stones not far from Gripsholm in Södermanland one can read (after I. Melnikova):
“Tola ordered to install this stone after her son Harald, brother of Ingvar.
They left bravely
far beyond gold
and in the east
fed the eagles.
Died in the south
in Cerkland ".
So on many other runestones, these proud lines about the campaign are written in verse. "Feed the eagles" is a poetic comparison meaning "to kill enemies in battle." The poetic meter used here is the old epic meter and is characterized by two stressed syllables in each poetic line, as well as by the fact that the poetic lines are connected in pairs by alliteration, that is, repeating initial consonants and changing vowels.
Khazars and Volga Bulgars.
During the Viking Age in Eastern Europe, there were two important states dominated by Turkic peoples: the Khazar state in the steppes north of the Caspian and Black Seas, and the Volga Bulgars state on the Middle Volga. The Khazar Kaganate ceased to exist at the end of the 10th century, but the descendants of the Volga Bulgars live today in Tatarstan, a republic within the Russian Federation. Both of these states played an important role in the transfer of eastern influences to the Old Russian state and the countries of the Baltic region. A detailed analysis of Islamic coins showed that approximately 1/10 of them are imitations and were minted by the Khazars or, even more often, by the Volga Bulgars.The Khazar Kaganate early adopted Judaism as the state religion, and the state of the Volga Bulgars officially adopted Islam in 922. In this regard, Ibn Fadlan visited the country, who wrote a story about his visit and about a meeting with merchants from Russia. The best known is his description of the burial of the hevding of the Rus in a ship - a funeral custom characteristic of Scandinavia and also found in the Old Russian state. The funeral ceremony included the sacrifice of a slave woman who was raped by soldiers from the detachment before killing her and burning her along with their hevding. This is a story full of brutal details that can hardly be guessed from archaeological excavations of Viking Age burials.
Varangians among the Greeks in Miklagard.
The Byzantine Empire, which in Eastern and Northern Europe was called Greece or Greeks, according to the Scandinavian tradition, was perceived as the main goal of the campaigns to the east. In the Russian tradition, ties between Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire also figure prominently. The Tale of Bygone Years contains a detailed description of the path: "There was a path from the Varangians to the Greeks, and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper there was a portage to Lovoti, and along Lovoti you can enter Ilmen, a great lake; Volkhov and flows into Lake Great Nevo (Ladoga), and the mouth of that lake flows into the Varangian Sea (Baltic Sea) ".The emphasis on the role of Byzantium is a simplification of reality. The Scandinavians came primarily to the Old Russian state and settled there. And trade with the Caliphate through the states of the Volga Bulgars and Khazars should have been the most important from an economic point of view for Eastern Europe and Scandinavia during the 9th-10th centuries.
However, during the Viking Age, and especially after the Christianization of the Old Russian state, the importance of ties with the Byzantine Empire increased. This is evidenced primarily by written sources. For unknown reasons, the number of finds of coins and other objects from Byzantium is relatively small in both Eastern and Northern Europe.
Around the end of the 10th century, the Emperor of Constantinople established at his court a special Scandinavian detachment - the Varangian Guard. Many believe that the beginning of this guard was laid by those Varangians who were sent to the emperor by the Kiev prince Vladimir in connection with his adoption of Christianity in 988 and his marriage to the emperor's daughter.
The word vringi (vringar) originally meant people bound by an oath, but in the later period of the Viking Age it became a common name for the Scandinavians in the east. Varing in the Slavic language began to be called the Varangian, in Greek - varangos, in Arabic - warank.
Constantinople, or Miklagard, the great city, as the Scandinavians called it, was incredibly attractive to them. Icelandic sagas tell of many Norwegians and Icelanders who served in the Varangian Guard. One of them, Harald the Severe, became king of Norway on his return home (1045-1066). Swedish runestones of the 11th century often speak of being in Greece than in the Old Russian state.
On the old path that leads to the church at Ede in Uppland, there is a large stone with runic inscriptions on both sides. In them, Ragnwald says that these runes were carved in memory of his mother Fastvi, but above all he is interested in telling about himself:
"These runes are commanded
carve Ragnwald.
He was in Greece
was the leader of a detachment of warriors. "
Soldiers from the Varangian Guard guarded the palace in Constantinople and took part in military campaigns in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula and Italy. The country of the Lombards, mentioned on several runestones, refers to Italy, the southern regions of which were part of the Byzantine Empire. In the port suburb of Athens, Piraeus, there used to be a huge luxurious marble lion, which was transported to Venice in the 17th century. On this lion, one of the Varangians, while resting in Piraeus, carved a serpentine runic inscription, which was typical of Swedish runestones of the 11th century. Unfortunately, even upon discovery, the inscription was so badly damaged that only individual words can be read.
Scandinavians in Gardarik during the late Viking Age.
At the end of the 10th century, as already mentioned, the flow of Islamic silver dried up, and instead of it, a flow of German and English coins poured eastward into the Russian state. In 988 the Kiev prince and his people took over the quantities in Gotland, where they were also copied, and in mainland Sweden and Denmark. Several belts have been discovered even in Iceland. Perhaps they belonged to people who served with the Russian princes.
Ties between the rulers of Scandinavia and the Old Russian state during the XI-XII centuries were very lively. Two of the great princes of Kiev took wives in Sweden: Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054, previously reigned in Novgorod from 1010 to 1019) married Ingegerd, daughter of Olav Shetkonung, and Mstislav (1125-1132, previously reigned in Novgorod from 1095 1125) - on Christina, daughter of King Inge the Old.
Novgorod - Holmgard and trade with the Sami and the Gotland.
Eastern, Russian influence also reached the Sami in northern Scandinavia in the 11th-12th centuries. In many places in Swedish Lapland and Norrbotten there are places of sacrifice on the shores of lakes and rivers and near rocks with bizarre shapes; there are deer antlers, animal bones, arrowheads, and also tin. Many of these metal objects originate from the Old Russian state, most likely from Novgorod - for example, the binding of Russian belts of the same kind that were found in the southern part of Sweden.
Novgorod, which the Scandinavians called Holmgard, acquired great importance over the centuries as a trading metropolis. The Gotlandians, who continued to play an important role in the Baltic trade in the 11th-12th centuries, created a trading post in Novgorod. At the end of the 12th century, the Germans appeared in the Baltic, and gradually the main role in the Baltic trade passed to the German Hansa.
End of the Viking Age.
On a simple mold for cheap jewelry, made from a bar and found at Timans in Rum on Gotland, two Gotlandians at the end of the 11th century carved their names, Urmiga and Ulvat, and, in addition, the names of four distant countries. They let us know that the world for the Scandinavians in the Viking Age had wide borders: Greece, Jerusalem, Iceland, Serkland.
It is impossible to name the exact date when this world shrank and the Viking Age ended. Gradually, during the XI and XII centuries, the ways and connections changed their character, and in the XII century travels deep into the Old Russian state and to Constantinople and Jerusalem ceased. When the number of written sources in Sweden increased in the 13th century, the voyages to the east became only memories.
In the Older Edition of the Visgotalag, recorded in the first half of the 13th century, in the Chapter on Inheritance, there is, among other things, the following statement concerning someone who is found abroad: He does not inherit to anyone while he is in Greece. Did the Visigoths still serve in the Varangian Guard, or did this paragraph remain from times long past?
In Gutasag, a story about the history of Gotland recorded in the 13th or early 14th century, it is said that the first churches on the island were consecrated by bishops on their way to the Holy Land or back. At that time, the path went east through Russia and Greece to Jerusalem. When the saga was being recorded, the pilgrims made a detour through Central or even Western Europe.
Translation: Anna Fomenkova.
Do you know that...
The Scandinavians who served in the Varangian guard were probably Christians - or they converted to Christianity during their stay in Constantinople. Some of them made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and Jerusalem, called Yorsalir in the Scandinavian language. The runestone from Brubu to Tebyu in Uppland commemorates Eystein, who went to Jerusalem and died in Greece.Another runic inscription from Uppland, from Stacket in Kungsengen, tells of a determined and fearless woman: Ingerun, the daughter of Hord, ordered the runes be carved in memory of herself. She travels east and to Jerusalem.
The largest treasure of silver objects dating back to the Viking Age was found in Gotland in 1999. Its total weight is about 65 kilograms, of which 17 kilograms are Islamic silver coins (approximately 14,300).
The material uses pictures from the article.
games for girls
Vikings- early medieval mainly Scandinavian sailors, in the VIII-XI centuries, made sea voyages from Vinland to Biarmia and from the Caspian Sea to North Africa. For the most part, these were free peasants who lived in the territory of modern Sweden, Denmark and Norway, who were pushed outside their native countries by overpopulation and the thirst for easy money. By religion, they are overwhelmingly pagans.
Swedish Vikings and Vikings from the Baltic coast, as a rule, traveled to the east and appeared in Old Russian and Byzantine sources under the name of the Varangians. The Norwegian and Danish Vikings moved for the most part to the west and are known from Latin sources under the name of the Normans. The Scandinavian sagas provide insight into the Vikings from within their society, but this source should be approached with caution due to the often late date of their compilation and recording. Other non-Scandinavian peoples of the Baltic were also seen participating in the Viking movement. The Baltic Slavs (Vendians) belonged to the Vikings, in particular, the Wagras and Ruians became famous for their pirate raids on Scandinavia and Denmark. This information has also been preserved in the sagas. In the "Saga of Hakone the Good" it is written "Then Hakon Konung sailed east along the banks of the Skane and ravaged the country, took ransoms and taxes and killed the Vikings, where he only found them, both Danes and Wends."
Lifestyle... Abroad, the Vikings acted as robbers, conquerors and traders, and at home they mainly cultivated the land, hunted, fished and raised livestock. An independent peasant, working alone or with his family, formed the backbone of Scandinavian society. No matter how small his allotment was, he remained free and was not tied as a serf to the land belonging to another person. Kinship ties were highly developed in all strata of Scandinavian society, and in important matters its members usually acted together with relatives. The clans jealously guarded the good names of their fellow tribesmen, and the violation of the honor of one of them often led to violent feuds. Women in the family played an important role. They could own property, decide on their own about marriage and divorce from the wrong spouse. However, outside the family home, women's participation in public life remained insignificant.
Food... During Viking times, most people ate twice a day. The main products were meat, fish and cereal grains. Meat and fish were usually boiled, less often fried. For storage, these products were dried and salted. The cereals used were rye, oats, barley and several types of wheat. Usually, porridge was made from their grains, but sometimes bread was baked. Vegetables and fruits were rarely eaten. Drinks included milk, beer, fermented mead, and in the upper classes of society imported wine.
Clothing. Peasant clothing consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy pants, stockings, and a rectangular cape. The upper class Vikings wore long pants, socks, and capes in bright colors. Woolen mittens and hats were in use, as well as fur hats and even felt hats. High society women usually wore long clothes, which consisted of a bodice and a skirt. Thin chains hung from the buckles on the clothes, to which were attached scissors and a case for needles, a knife, keys and other small items. Married women wore their hair in a bun and wore tapered white linen caps. The unmarried girls had their hair tied up with a ribbon.
Dwelling. Peasant dwellings were usually simple one-room houses, built either from tightly fitted vertical beams, or more often from wicker vine coated with clay. Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, which housed numerous relatives. In heavily forested Scandinavia, such houses were built from wood, often combined with clay, and in Iceland and Greenland, in conditions of a shortage of wood, local stone was widely used. There were folded walls 90 cm thick or more. Roofs were usually covered with peat. The central living room of the house was low and dark, with a long hearth in the middle. There they cooked, ate and slept. Sometimes inside the house, pillars were installed along the walls in a row to support the roof, and the side rooms fenced off in this way were used as bedrooms. 
Literature and art. The Vikings appreciated skill in combat, but they also revered literature, history and art. Viking literature existed in oral form, and only some time after the end of the Viking Age did the first written works appear. The runic alphabet was then used only for inscriptions on tombstones, for magic spells and short messages. But Iceland has a rich folklore. It was recorded at the end of the Viking Age using the Latin alphabet by scribes who wanted to immortalize the exploits of their ancestors. Among the treasures of Icelandic literature stand out the long prose narratives known as sagas. They are classified into three main types. In the most important, the so-called. family sagas describe real characters from the Viking Age. Several dozen family sagas have survived, five of which are comparable in size to large novels. The other two types are historical sagas about the Norse kings and the settlement of Iceland, and fictional adventure sagas from the end of the Viking age, reflecting the influence of the Byzantine Empire and India. Viking art was primarily decorative in nature. The predominant motifs - whimsical animals and energetic abstract compositions of intertwining ribbons - have been used in wood carvings, fine gold and silver work, and runestones and monuments that have been erected to capture important events. 
Religion. In the beginning, the Vikings worshiped pagan gods and goddesses. The most important of them were Thor, Odin, Frey and the goddess Freya, less important were Njord, Ull, Balder and several other household gods. The gods were worshiped in temples or in sacred forests, groves and springs. The Vikings also believed in many supernatural beings: trolls, elves, giants, aquatic and magical inhabitants of forests, hills and rivers. Bloody sacrifices were often performed. The sacrificial animals were usually eaten by the priest and his entourage at the feasts that were held in the temples. There were also human sacrifices, even ritual murders of kings for the welfare of the country. In addition to the priests and priestesses, there were sorcerers who practiced black magic. People of the Viking age attached great importance to luck as a type of spiritual strength inherent in any person, but especially leaders and kings. Nevertheless, this era was characterized by a pessimistic and fatalistic attitude. Fate was presented as an independent factor standing above gods and people. According to some poets and philosophers, people and gods were doomed to go through a powerful struggle and cataclysm known as Ragnarök (Iceland - "end of the world"). Christianity spread slowly northward and presented an attractive alternative to paganism. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century, the Icelandic leaders adopted a new religion in 1000, and Sweden in the 11th century, but in the north of this country pagan beliefs persisted until the beginning of the 12th century.
Military art
Viking treks. Detailed information about the Viking campaigns is known mainly from the written reports of the victims, who did not spare paints to describe the devastation that the Scandinavians carried with them. The first campaigns of the Vikings were made according to the principle of "fight and flight". Without warning, they appeared from the sea on light high-speed vessels and struck at poorly protected objects known for their wealth. The Vikings slashed the few defenders with swords, and the rest of the inhabitants were enslaved, seized values, all the rest they set on fire. Gradually, they began to use horses in their campaigns.
Weapon. The Vikings' weapons were bow and arrows, as well as a variety of swords, spears and battle axes. Swords and spearheads and arrows were usually made of iron or steel. For bows, yew or elm wood was preferred, and braided hair was usually used as a bowstring. Viking shields were round or oval in shape. Usually, light pieces of linden wood, chipped along the edge and across with iron strips, went to the shields. A pointed plaque was located in the center of the shield. For protection, warriors also wore metal or leather helmets, often with horns, and warriors from the nobility often wore chain mail. 
Viking ships. The highest technical achievement of the Vikings was their warships. These boats, kept in exemplary order, were often described with great love in Viking poetry and were a source of pride for them. The narrow frame of such a vessel was very convenient for approaching the shore and fast passage along rivers and lakes. Lighter ships were especially suited for surprise attacks; they could be dragged from one river to another to bypass rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of these ships was that they were not sufficiently adapted for long voyages on the high seas, which was compensated by the navigational art of the Vikings. Viking boats differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. Thirteen pairs of oars determined the minimum size of a combat vessel. The very first ships were designed for 40-80 people each, and the large keeled ship was 11th century. accommodated several hundred people. Such large combat units exceeded 46 m in length. Ships were often built from boards laid in rows with overlapping and fastened with curved frames. Above the waterline, most of the warships were brightly colored. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the prows of ships. The same decoration could be at the stern, and in some cases there was a wriggling dragon's tail. When sailing in the waters of Scandinavia, these decorations were usually removed so as not to frighten the good spirits. Often, when approaching the port, shields were hung out in a row on the sides of the ships, but this was not allowed on the high seas.
Viking ships moved with sails and oars. A simple square sail, made of rough canvas, was often painted in stripes and checkers. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could lead the ship against the wind. The ships were controlled by a paddle-shaped rudder mounted aft on the starboard side. 
Vikings in England
June 8, 793 A.D. NS. Vikings landed on the island of Lindisfarne in Northumbria, destroying and devastating the monastery of St. Cuthbert. This is the first Viking attack to be clearly recorded in written records, although it is clear that Scandinavians have visited British shores before. Since at first the Vikings used the tactics of pin strikes, the chroniclers did not attach much importance to their raids. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions a raid of sea robbers of unknown origin on Portland in Dorset in 787. The conquest of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the occupation of western and northern England were a major success for the Danish Vikings. In 865, the sons of the Danish king Ragnar Lodbrok brought a large army to the shores of England, christened by the chroniclers "the great army of pagans." In 870-871. the sons of Ragnar subjected the kings of East Anglia and Northumbria to cruel execution, and their possessions were divided among themselves. Following this, the Danes began to conquer Mercia.
King of Wessex Alfred the Great was forced to conclude with the Danes first a truce, and then a full-fledged peace treaty, thereby legitimizing their possessions in Britain. Jorvik became the English capital of the Vikings. Despite the influx of fresh forces from Scandinavia in 892 and 899, Alfred and his son Edward the Elder successfully resisted the Danish conquerors, by 924 clearing them from the territory of East Anglia and Mercia. Scandinavian rule in remote Northumbria lasted until 954.
A new wave of Viking raids on British shores began in 980. It culminated in the 1013 conquest of England by the Danish Vikings of Sven Forkbeard. In 1016-35. at the head of the united Anglo-Danish monarchy was Knud the Great. After his death, the Wessex dynasty, represented by Edward the Confessor, regained the English throne. In 1066, the British fought off another invasion of the Scandinavians, this time led by the Norwegian king Harald the Severe.
The Scandinavian influence on the political culture, social structure and language of Ireland and other Celtic lands was much more significant than in England, but the chronology of their invasions, due to the paucity of sources, cannot be reconstructed with the same accuracy. The first foray into Ireland is mentioned in 795. With the arrival of the Vikings, Dublin was founded, which the Scandinavians ruled for two centuries. Limerick and Waterford had their own Scandinavian kings, while Dublin kings extended their rule even to Northumbria at the beginning of the 10th century. 
The Vikings' relationship with the Frankish Empire was complicated. During the time of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, the empire was relatively protected from the onslaught from the north. Galicia, Portugal and some Mediterranean lands suffered from episodic Norman raids in the 9th and 10th centuries. Viking leaders such as Roeric of Jutland entered the service of the Frankish rulers in order to protect the frontiers of the empire from their own tribesmen, at the same time controlling rich markets in the Rhine Delta, such as Walcheren and Dorestad. King Harald Klack of Jutland swore an oath of allegiance to Louis the Pious back in 823.
The penetration of the Vikings into the Finnish lands began in the 2nd half of the 8th century, as evidenced by the oldest layers of Staraya Ladoga. At about the same time with them, these lands were settled and mastered by the Slavs. Unlike raids on the shores of Western Europe, Viking settlements in Eastern Europe were more stable. The Scandinavians themselves noted the abundance of fortified settlements in the east of Europe, christening Ancient Russia "the country of cities" - Gards. The evidence for the violent infiltration of the Vikings into eastern Europe is not as abundant as it is in the west. An example is the Swedish invasion of the Curonian lands, which is described in the life of Ansgar. The main object of interest of the Vikings was the river routes, along which it was possible to get to the Arab Caliphate through the system of drafts. Their settlements are known on the Volkhov, Volga and Dnieper. The places of concentration of Scandinavian burial grounds, as a rule, are located several kilometers from the urban centers where the local population, mainly Slavic, settled, and in many cases from the river arteries themselves.
In the 9th century, the Vikings provided trade with the Khazars along the Volga with the help of a proto-state structure called by some historians the Russian Khaganate. Judging by the finds of treasures of coins, in the 10th century the Dnieper became the main trade artery, the main trading partner instead of Khazaria was Byzantium. According to the Norman theory, the state of Kievan Rus was born from the symbiosis of the newly arrived Varangians with the Slavic population, headed by the Rurikovichs - the descendants of Prince Rurik. 
In the lands of the Prussians, the Vikings held in their hands the shopping centers Kaup and Truso, from where the "amber route" in the Mediterranean began. In Finland, traces of their long-term presence have been found on the shores of Lake Vanajavesi. In Staraya Ladoga, under Yaroslav the Wise Jarl, Regnvald Ulvson was sitting. The Vikings traveled to the mouth of the Northern Dvina for furs and explored the Zavolotsky route. Ibn Fadlan in 922 met them in the Volga Bulgaria. Through the Volga-Don portage near Sarkel, the Russians descended into the Caspian Sea. For two centuries, they fought and traded with Byzantium, concluding several treaties with it.
Termination of sea voyages... The Vikings curtailed their campaigns of conquest in the first half of the 11th century. This is due to the decline in the population of the Scandinavian lands, the spread of Christianity in the north of Europe, which did not approve of robbery and the slave trade. In parallel, the tribal system was replaced by feudal relations, and the traditional semi-nomadic way of life of the Vikings gave way to a sedentary one. Another factor was the reorientation of trade routes: the Volga and Dnieper river routes steadily yielded importance to Mediterranean trade, which was revived by the Venetian and other trading republics. In the 11th century, individual adventurers from Scandinavia were still hired to serve the Byzantine emperors and ancient Russian princes. Historians refer to the last Vikings on the Norwegian throne as Olaf Haraldson and Harald the Severe, who laid down his head while trying to conquer England. Ingvar the Traveler, who died during an expedition on the shores of the Caspian Sea, was one of the last to undertake a long overseas campaign in the spirit of his ancestors. Having adopted Christianity, yesterday's Vikings organized in 1107-1110. own crusade to the Holy Land.
Weapons and armor
Horned helmet- in the mass consciousness it is considered almost an obligatory attribute of the Viking, which was worn by everyone. However, in the entire history of excavations, not a single horned helmet has been found. They found thousands of different ones - pointed and obtuse, decorated and not, even dug up a pair of helmets with wings, like Hermes, but not a single horned one. Different peoples had such helmets, but it is assumed that primarily for ritual and decorative purposes. The fact is that a sword can slide off a pointed helmet, and, catching on a horn, it either tears off the helmet from the head, or turns it around 90 degrees, or cuts it together with the head. In fact, the most common among the Vikings was a helmet similar to the "St. Wenceslas", that is, conical, with a nosepiece and aventail. At that time, it was not sickly innovation. 
Shield- the main protection of the Viking was exactly he, round, with an umbilicus, about a meter in diameter, in the simplest case bluntly hammered out of boards, sometimes covered with leather and bound with metal for reinforcement, but still - a consumable. It is he who holds most of the blows, there are a number of cunning and not very tactics to divert him to the side, and the one who remains in the cut without a shield is practically guaranteed not a tenant, if he does not have time to bounce behind the backs of his comrades. During hiking, the shield was hung on the back, and in the sea, it was attached to the sides of the drakkar. Shields were also used as a signal flag: a white shield raised to the mast meant peaceful intentions, red - "now someone will be killed."
Armor- depending on the well-being: from a leather jacket or a sleeveless jacket made of bearskin for ordinary warriors to chain mail with additional scales or a vest made of lamellar worn over it by a jarl or an experienced fighter.
Sword- the most popular weapon. The classic Viking sword - straight, double-edged, with a rounded end and a ball-shaped pommel - is intended only for chopping blows. In the X-XI centuries, fencing as a discipline did not yet exist, and sword fighting included such elements as "swing harder", "fuck with all the foolishness" and "take a blow on the shield." They did not practice piercing blows, they did not parry a sword with a sword - the rough-forged iron from such disrespect was easily serrated and could easily break. Actually, the main purpose of the sword is to chop down a weakly defended enemy or beheading extra limbs from the armed. 
Poleaxe / ax- the second most popular and the first most important weapon. When the word "Viking" is heard, most often a hefty bulwark in a horned helmet, chain mail and with a double-sided poleaxe is presented. In fact, the latter was used by the ancient Greeks and all sorts of Asians, and the Vikings preferred one-sided axes, the reason for which is quite simple: they fought in close formation, forming a wall of shields, and in such conditions, when swinging, you can easily hurt your own neighbor. In general, an ax is not only a weapon, but also a universal tool of that time - you can fix a drakkar, chop wood, break down a gate, break a skull, and cook porridge. And when robbing civilians, the ax is more convenient due to its versatility. Chopping doors with a sword - a toad will strangle you, but an ax is not a pity for such a thing, because high-quality steel was used only for making the blade, and the butt and other parts were made of ordinary iron. In battle, with an ax, it is much more practical to break shields and cut through armor, plus the ax continues to cut tolerably well, even having lost its sharpening, while the sword turns into a useless crowbar. Well, you should not write off the economic aspect: an ax is easier to manufacture ⇒ cheaper, and therefore more affordable for a rogue, and it is easier to straighten a chipped blade.
Brodex- an ax with a 45 cm blade, sitting on a meter-long ax with a two-handed grip. Invaluable for crumbling into a fine vinaigrette. It is no coincidence that the Brodex fighters were put on the edge of the wedge of the attacking Scandinavian stealth pihot.
Hammer- a less common, but most respected type of weapon. Could be both combat and throwing. Known is the hammer of the Scandinavian god Thor Mjolnir, which was homing, triggered lightning upon impact, and returned back to the hand after hitting the target. Accordingly, the Vikings, who respected their god, wore pendants in the form of a hammer. From a practical point of view, it is good that it punches such flexible armor as chain mail.
Spears- were used by the Vikings on an equal basis with all neighbors, throwing and combat were distinguished. Combat ones usually had a long leaf-shaped tip, which could not only stab, but also chop, and the shaft was bound with metal.
Viking ships
Drakkar- terrifying Viking ships. A dragon's head was always placed on the bow of the ship, at the sight of which the civilian population dirty their pants and fled in horror. The ship worked on a manual drive, by rowing oars against the water. With a tailwind, the speed was added by a square sail. Thanks to their smart-ass design, these ships were versatile, all-terrain and invisible.
For a Viking, the drakkar meant more than the ancestral castle for the knight, and it was a great shame to fuck the drakkar - such a leader could easily scatter the whole squad. Contrary to the common misconception, only free Vikings could be rowers on a drakkar, and if for some reason a slave was put behind the oars, then after that he received freedom. Drakkar rowers had different status depending on their location on the ship. The most honorable places were on the bow of the ship. This was due to the fact that the speed and efficiency of the ship's movement depended on the rowers, at the same time they were warriors, and when going into hand-to-hand combat, the units sitting on the bow were the first to enter the battle.