The development of the state education system in Russia in the 19th century. The development of the school education system in Russia in the 19th century

Cherkashina Anna Evgenievna
undergraduate

Federal State Budgetary
educational institution
higher education "Omsk
State Pedagogical University "
Omsk

The education system of any state is the most important tool for shaping the personality of a citizen. The influence of the state on the education system is undeniable.

In the 19th century, the education system in Russia takes on new forms. The need for education for a wide range of the country's population is becoming a necessity. For this purpose, in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, to which the entire system of public education was subordinate, except for educational institutions for women, which were subordinate to the department of Empress Maria Feodorovna.

The Main Directorate of Schools was created under the Ministry. The members of the General Directorate of Schools in 1804 developed a legislative act "Preliminary Rules of Public Education". According to the Rules, such documents were published as:

- "Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire"

- "Charter of educational institutions subordinate to universities."

In accordance with these documents, education was declared free and without class (with the exception of serfs). And also the continuity was established between different types of educational institutions:

Parish schools - one year of study;

County schools - two years of study;

Gymnasiums in provinces - four years of study;

Universities.

Ideally, this meant that any person, having completed all stages of education, could receive a higher university education. But the reform did not provide for the education of children of serfs and women in gymnasiums and universities.

The country was divided into 6 educational districts, headed by universities. In each district, trustees were appointed from among the members of the Main Directorate of Schools, who monitored the affairs in the district allocated to it, received reports on the activities of educational institutions, was responsible for organizing the university and implemented the educational policy of the state. In each district at the university, School Committees were created, which directed the activities of educational institutions in their district.

"The goal of every education system was to prepare students for higher education and to provide a complete education to those who could not or did not want to pursue further education."

Education in parish schools provided for a twofold goal: firstly, it prepared for admission to district schools, and secondly, it gave children initial knowledge. Here they taught to read, write, count, the basics of natural history, hygiene and the Law of God. And also the book "A Brief Manual on Rural Home Economics" was studied. All classes were taught by one teacher, who was the parish priest. There were no special textbooks and each teacher taught the children at his own discretion.

After the uprising of the Decembrists in the country, there was a revision of the results of the reform. Education was required to turn towards strengthening patriarchal foundations. Therefore, in 1826, the Committee for the Organization of Educational Institutions was created, which decided to prohibit arbitrary education.

In 1828, the Committee adopted a new document: "The Charter of Uyezd and Parish Gymnasiums and Schools". According to this document, the continuity between institutions was abolished. Now every institution had to provide a complete education.

Parish schools were intended for the children of peasants, burghers and artisans. In the opinion of the members of the Committee, each class had its own level of education, which was necessary for them by virtue of their duties. For the first time they started talking about the importance of educational work in schools.

At the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, an event took place, the reform of 1861, which brought with it not only the abolition of serfdom, but also generated great public interest in the upbringing and education of the younger generation. In addition, the abolition of serfdom brought with it the problem of unfair division of schools according to class and gender.

In 1861, a special commission presented the "Project for the General Structure of Public Schools", which provided for the emergence of new educational institutions. At the same time, both parish and district schools were preserved. Public schools, gymnasiums and grammar schools began to open, which, in turn, were subdivided into philological and real ones.

By 1864, a new charter for secondary schools had been developed and adopted. This document proclaimed the unclassified education of all children, regardless of the profession or beliefs of the parents. The main thing is that parents are able to pay for the education. Only children of needy parents could be exempted from payment, but their number in a general education institution was regulated - no more than 10%.

The "Regulations on Public Schools", adopted in 1864, declared that schools were non-estates, gave the right to open primary schools to zemstvos, local governments, public organizations and individuals who themselves decided the issue of paying for tuition.

“The aim of the public schools is 'to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate useful initial knowledge.' Teaching subjects: the Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four actions of arithmetic, church singing. "

The gymnasium was the initial stage of the gymnasium. It involved a four-year course of study. The reform was supposed to transfer county schools and two-year parish schools to the status of a progymnasium.

By the charter of 1864, two types of secondary schools were created: a classical gymnasium and a real gymnasium. In turn, the classical gymnasium was divided into classical gymnasiums with the study of two ancient languages ​​and classical gymnasiums with the study of one ancient language, most often it was Latin. Education in these institutions allowed him to continue his studies at the university in the future. In real gymnasiums, the ancient languages ​​were not taught and their graduation did not allow them to continue their studies at the university, but opened up the opportunity to enter technical and agricultural higher educational institutions.

In classical gymnasiums, the courses in mathematics and natural science were reduced, in real gymnasiums, the course in natural science was increased, drawing was introduced, and two new foreign languages ​​were additionally taught. At the request of the management and students, courses in singing, music, gymnastics, and dancing were introduced. The training involved a seven-year course.

The new charter attached great importance to the teacher's personal example in the upbringing and teaching of the younger generation; corporal punishment was abolished. The teacher was also allowed to independently draw up curricula, choose textbooks from the list approved by the Ministry of Public Education.

There was no continuity between public schools and gymnasiums, so children of the lower classes did not have the opportunity to receive a complete classical education. Their access to higher educational institutions was completely blocked.

Another important achievement of the reforms of 1864 was the establishment of all-class schools for women. In 1870, women's gymnasiums and gymnasiums began to appear. They were all-estates, but paid.

“The main subjects were: the Law of God, the Russian language, arithmetic with an application to bookkeeping and the foundations of geometry, general and Russian geography and history, the main concepts from natural history and physics with information on household and hygiene, French and German, music, singing dancing" .

Since 1872, private female gymnasiums appeared, training in which took place according to programs approved by the Ministry of Public Education, and approached the level of training for male gymnasiums. To obtain a certificate, exams were taken in men's gymnasiums.

In 1866, the Ministry of Public Education was headed by Count Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy. He was distinguished by a very conservative view of the education system as a whole. Under his leadership, the Ministry restricted the freedoms of universities and introduced strict control over school curricula. Being at the same time the Chief Prosecutor of the Most Holy Governing Synod, he opposed the opening of zemstvo schools and in every possible way welcomed parish schools, the level of education in which was an order of magnitude lower. Simultaneously with the strengthening of the influence of the church on schools in 1869, D.A. Tolstoy introduces the post of inspector of public schools in each province of the Russian Empire. And in 1874 the posts of directors of public schools appeared. Thus, control over the activities of teachers of public schools was strengthened.

Further innovations came into force in 1871. Thanks to the project of the publicists Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov and Pavel Mikhailovich Leontiev, the division of gymnasiums into classical and real ones has disappeared. The teaching program was completely revised. Now in gymnasiums more than 40% of the study time was devoted to the study of ancient languages. More academic hours were allocated for the study of mathematics, physics, mathematical geography. Science and chemistry were no longer taught at all, and the number of hours for drawing, sketching, calligraphy and history was significantly reduced.

According to the reform of 1871, the former real grammar schools were renamed into real schools with a professional bias. The training was six years old, but training in an additional seventh grade was also assumed, where it was possible to additionally study at the mechanical-technical, chemical-technical and general education departments. Education in a real school did not allow continuing education at universities, but on the other hand, it satisfied the needs of industry for qualified engineering personnel.

On March 16, 1882, the post of Minister of Public Education was taken by Ivan Davydovich Delyanov. In 1884, under his direct leadership, a new project for the reorganization of parish schools was published, proposed by another prominent political figure of the second half of the 19th century - Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev. The purpose of this innovation was to return under the control of the church all the parish schools, which were seized from the church in the 1870s. The “Rules on parish schools” stipulated that parochial schools “had the goal of affirming the Orthodox teaching of Christian faith and morality among the people and imparting initial useful knowledge.” Parish schools were to replace ministerial schools and zemstvo schools locally.

And in 1887, a new document of the Ministry of Public Education was issued - "On the reduction of the number of students in gymnasiums and gymnasiums
and changes in the composition of these ”- this was the title of the report of I.D. Delyanov, which was published on June 18 (July 1), 1887. The report received a rather sad title - "Circular about cook's children." In it, the Minister of Public Education, Count Ivan Davydovich Delyanov, called for measures to be taken in educational institutions “from the admission of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like. to secondary and higher education ".

Also in 1887, in the gymnasium and progymnasium of the Russian Empire, by order of the Minister of Education, the admission of Jews was limited, preparatory classes at gymnasiums were closed. Thus, the minister's words about the restriction of education for the lower classes were set in motion.

But not everything was so sad. The Ministry of Public Education, under pressure from liberal social circles, periodically eased pressure and supervision on schools. However, more and more sought to get away from the materialistic tendencies that reigned in society, to the classical and customary forms of education. The ministry fully supported the creation of parish schools, including finances. So, since 1896, the state treasury allocated 3 million 279 thousand rubles annually for the development of the system of parish schools, the maintenance of teachers. Thus, the parish school actually becomes a state one.

The difference between the zemstvo school and the parish school was expressed in the content of education. In parish schools, teachers were primarily priests. The curriculum was dominated by such subjects as the Law of God, church singing, reading church books - up to 46% of the study time was allotted for this. Whereas in the zemstvo schools, without rejecting the religious component, the teaching of geography, history, and natural science was expanded.

The last quarter of the 19th was characterized by the beginning of the struggle for a popular school between the zemstvos and the government. The government sought to load the maintenance of schools on the shoulders of the zemstvo, but at the same time wanted to fully control the educational process. Zemstvos, on the other hand, strove for a school independent of the government.

In the same period, the pedagogical community itself begins to show great activity. Various pedagogical committees and societies are formed to promote education. One of the main activities of these societies was the development of new teaching aids. Although there was no shortage of educational literature, not all textbooks were written by professional educators.

In general, the network of educational institutions in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century was quite diverse. Nikolai Chekhov, a prominent teacher of the XIX-XX centuries, identified more than seventeen types of one-class and two-class schools, which are not only under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education, but also various departments. “And all these 17 types often represented huge differences from each other in terms of tasks, conditions, and methods of support and actual control. They also differed in the formulation of the educational part, and, consequently, in the actual programs of their course ”.

References

1. Gurkina N.K. History of education in Russia (X-XX centuries): Textbook. manual / SPbGUAP. SPb., 2001.64 with.
2. Dzhurinskiy A.N. History of pedagogy: Textbook. manual for stud. pedagogical universities. - M .: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2000. - 432 p.
3. Latyshina D.I. History of pedagogy (History of education and pedagogical thought): Textbook. allowance. - M: Gardariki, 2006.- 603 s.
4. Lipnik V.N. School reforms in Russia / Library Journal. "Bulletin of Education of Russia". M .: Pro-Press, 2002, no. 3-9.
5. Medynskiy E.N. Public education in the USSR. Moscow: Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, 1952.- 259 s.
6. A.I. Piskunov History of pedagogy. Part 2. From the 17th century. until the middle XX century: Textbook for pedagogical universities / Ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Education A.I. Piskunov. - M .: TC "Sfera", 1997. - 304 p.
7. Rules about parish schools. // " Government Gazette ". July 25 (August 6) 1884, No. 164, p. 1.
8. Collection of decisions on To the Ministry of Public Education. Volume ten. Reign of Emperor Alexander III. 1885-1888 years. SPb., 1894 p.
9. Chekhov N.V. Types of Russian school in their historical development. M., Publishing T-va "Mir". - 1923., 150s.

XVIII century

The 18th century in Russia brought changes to the learning process: new approaches to education appeared.

Theology began to be taught only in diocesan schools, where the children of the clergy studied. By 1727, there were 46 diocesan schools in Russia with 3056 students.

In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in the building of the former Sukharev Tower in Moscow. In the same 1701 the Artillery School was opened; in 1708 - Medical school; in 1712 - School of Engineering. In 1715, the senior classes of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences were transferred to St. Petersburg and transformed into the Naval Academy (now the Higher Naval Academy).

By the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. by decree of 1714, 42 digital schools with 2000 students were opened in the provinces (by the middle of the century, many digital schools were attached to theological schools, while others were closed).

Secondary educational institutions at that time included public schools, gentry buildings, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums.

19th century

By the beginning. XIX century. the comprehensive school was represented by 2- and 4-grade public schools in the cities. There were secondary schools in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kazan. There were specialized educational institutions: soldiers' schools, cadet and gentry corps, various types of religious schools. Moscow University was a higher educational institution.

Under Alexander I (1801-1825)

The first privileged secondary university institutions - lyceums - appeared: in 1811 - Tsarskoselsky, in 1817 - Richelievsky in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky.

Under Nicholas I (1825-1855)

Under Nicholas I, education took on a closed estate character: parish schools for peasants; district schools for the children of merchants, artisans and other urban inhabitants; gymnasiums for children of nobles and officials.

In 1827, a decree and a special circular were issued prohibiting the admission of serfs to gymnasiums and universities. The principle of estate and bureaucratic centralization became the basis of public education.

In 1828 - the school charter, according to which primary and secondary education was divided into three categories:

1. for children of the lower classes - one-class parish schools (four rules of arithmetic, reading, writing and the "law of God" were studied).
2. for the middle classes, that is, the bourgeoisie and merchants - three-grade schools (geometry, geography, history).
3. for the children of nobles and officials - seven-grade gymnasiums (they were preparing for admission to the university).

In 1835 a new University charter was published. It limited the autonomy of universities, banned university courts, and effectively led to the establishment of police oversight of students.

In the beginning. XIX century. there were 5 cadet corps. K ser. XIX century. there were twenty of them.

If at the beginning. XIX century. there were 35 Orthodox seminaries and 76 bishops' schools (lower theological schools), then in 1854 there were 48 and 223, respectively.

In 1810, after the addition of an additional stage of education at the Engineering School, which then became the Main Engineering School, the transition to the creation of a system of higher engineering education in Russia began, accompanied by a real deepening of the quality of natural-scientific training of engineers. This process of qualitative change in engineering schools was largely completed by the end of the 19th century.

In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was established, which trained officers of the General Staff. In 1855, the Artillery and Engineering academies were separated.

The network of industrial and technical educational institutions expanded: in 1828 the Institute of Technology was established, in 1830 - the Architectural School, and in 1832 - the School of Civil Engineers (in 1842 both of these schools were merged into the Construction School), in 1842 The Gorygoretsky Agricultural School was opened in Belarus, which was transformed in 1848 into the Agricultural Institute, in 1835 the Landing Institute was founded in Moscow. In addition, the Institute of Railway Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Practical Polytechnic Institute, the Mining Institute, the Practical Commercial Academy, the Agricultural School, the private Mining School, and the Technical School appeared. Veterinary schools are being established in the provinces.

Under Alexander II (1855-1881)

Loans for public education grew steadily all the time; from 1894 to 1904 they more than doubled: the budget of the Ministry of Public Education was increased from 22 to 42 million rubles, while loans for church schools increased from 2.5 to 13 million; and some state allocations for commercial schools (which later became widespread) reached 2-3 million per year. In about the same proportion, the zemstvo and city allocations for education increased in ten years: by 1904, if you combine the educational expenses of all departments * and local self-government, the amount of annual expenses for public education already exceeded 100 million rubles. (c. 62.89)

From the very beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, women's education began to develop at an accelerated pace (p. 25): “On the report of the Tula governor on the desirability of a wider attraction of girls to public schools, He put a note:“ I absolutely agree with this. This question is of the utmost importance. " The regulation on the Women's Medical Institute was approved (at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, women's medical courses were closed for the revolutionary spirit that reigned in them). Loans for parish schools have been significantly increased (almost doubled). " [ibid, p.62].

After the revolution of 1905-1906, the Russo-Japanese War and the reforms of 1906-1907. the Duma raises the question of adopting a law on the conduct of universal primary education. In 1906, a bill of the Minister of Public Education P. von Kaufmann was submitted for consideration. Some provisions of this law were adopted on May 3, according to which the state funding for MNEs was sharply increased, and paragraph 6 of the law established free (but not universal) primary education.This played a very important role in the development of the education system in Russia. However, the section on universal compulsory primary education was not adopted. Later in 1910, a 4-year education was instituted for all primary schools.

Discussion of the bill on universal primary education, meanwhile, was postponed several times, and dragged on until 1912. On June 6, 1912, the Council of State finally rejected the Universal Education Bill. And despite the widespread hoax, the law on universal and free primary education was not passed. By 1915, only a few individual counties and cities had introduced compulsory universal and free primary education (in 15 out of more than 440 zemstvos; that is, in 3%). Throughout Russia, developed by the MNP and the deputies of the State. Duma projects of universal education did not receive support at the highest level, not one of the developed bills on the introduction of universal education was adopted.

It is widely believed that throughout Russia, developed by the MNP and the deputies of the State. Duma projects of universal education have not received support at the highest level. - however, this is not so: the framework law on primary school education (on a sharp increase in funding) was signed on May 3, 1908 by Nicholas II, and later the disagreements between the State Duma and the State Council were that the State Council insisted on increasing funding ( higher than the one proposed by the State Duma) without specifying the timing of the transition to universal education, and the State Duma insisted on introducing into the law the term for the transition to universal education (10 years), but considered that the increase in funding was higher than it proposed (10 million rubles in year) is not required. At the same time, the same modern critics of this law write: “ Since the publication of the law of May 3, 1908, the country began to take the first measures related to the implementation of the project for the introduction of universal education in the country, which involved the creation of school networks of primary educational institutions.". These measures (including an increase in the number of schools and their accessibility within a radius of no more than 3 versts) were carried out steadily until 1917.

“A picture of the current state of school affairs and the results achieved in the 3 years that have elapsed since the start of the introduction of universal education for children is given by the one-day school census carried out on January 18, 1911.

This census registered 100,295 primary schools for children between the ages of 8 and 12, and the Ministry of Public Education estimates that this number is about 98% of the actual number of such schools. Of these 100295 schools are managed by: the Ministry of Public Education - 59682; Spiritual Department - 37922; other departments - 2691.

On the day of the census, 6,180,510 students were present in schools, which is 3.85% of the total population. And since the number of school-age children (from 8 to 12 years old) is determined by about 9% of the total population, it turns out that only about 43% of all children attended primary school in 1911 "...

The timing of the universal accessibility of primary education, that is, the opening of all schools provided for by the school network of a given district, are set different, depending on the state of school affairs in each district and its financial viability. On average for 34 provinces this period is 9.4 years. In 33 counties (11%) it does not exceed 5 years. In 40 counties (13%), it will take 12 to 17 years to open the full number of schools. (p. 190).

The number of primary schools in these provinces (without literacy schools) was 59907, accounting for 61% of the total number of the same schools established by the census (98204). The maintenance expense was 64% of the total consumption for the Empire. These figures testify to the important role of zemstvos in introducing primary education. Ie 949 cities in 1911 entered into agreement with the Ministry on the introduction of universal education in 69 cities. Then a number of urban settlements were included in the district zemstvo networks. "

“Summing up all of the above, it should be said that the Russian elementary public school, which until recently existed mainly at the expense of local funds, is now supported by large holidays from the treasury, is developing in the central Great Russian and Little Russian provinces at a fairly rapid pace with proper government cooperation and local organizations, and that the achievement here in the near future of the general availability of primary education can be considered secured. The position of the Russian school on the outskirts and in areas with a predominance of a foreign population seems to be relatively backward. The planned development of schooling in these localities, which is now the next task of the Ministry of Public Education, will undoubtedly require energetic work on the part of the government agencies in charge of this matter and large expenditures from the state treasury ”(p. 193).

From the "Explanatory note to the report of the state control on the execution of the state list and financial estimates for 1911" pp. 187-188 SPb., 1912

By 1914, there were 59 students per 1000 people of the total population: in Russia 59, in Austria - 143, in Great Britain - 152, in Germany - 175, in the USA - 213, in France - 148, in Japan - 146 people.

According to Nikolai Erofeev, per capita spending on education was still meager compared to developed countries. In England they were 2 rubles. 84 rubles per person, in France - 2 rubles. 11 K., in Germany - 1 p. 89 k., And in Russia - 21 kopecks. However, this estimate (21 kopecks per capita in 1914) seems to be clearly underestimated. According to the data cited by Pitirim Sorokin (Sorokin P.A. Sociology of the Revolution. M., 2008. p. 285-286), the budget of the Ministry of Public Education in 1914 was 142,736,000 rubles, the total expenditure of all ministries on education was 280-300 million rubles , and the expenditure of cities and zemstvos approached 360 million rubles. Thus, the total expenditure on education was about 640 million rubles. Thus, the per capita expenditure in the Russian Empire in 1914 was no less than 3 rubles 70 kopecks.

By 1914, the Russian Empire numbered 123 745 primary education, of them:

• 80801 departments of the MNP,
• 40530 departments of the Orthodox confession
• 2414 other departments.

The coverage of children aged 8 to 11 by primary school by 1914 was 30.1% in the Russian Empire as a whole (in cities - 46.6%, in rural areas - 28.3%).

However, in the European part of Russia the situation was much better: the researcher of the Institute of Information Technologies and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences D. L. Saprykin came to the conclusion that, I quote: “ the data of the full school census of January 1911 and the partial census of January 1915 indicate that at that time in the central Great Russian and Little Russian provinces, virtually complete education of boys was provided. The situation was different with the education of girls (even in European Russia, no more than 50% of girls in primary schools were enrolled in schools)».

Secondary educational institutions MNEs for 1913 were represented by male and female educational institutions. For men: 441 gymnasiums, 29 gymnasiums, 284 technical schools, 32 technical schools, and 27 technical schools. Women's: gymnasiums 873, gymnasiums 92.

Higher education in 1913/1914 63 state, public, private and departmental educational institutions of higher education were represented. According to A.E. Ivanov, in 1913/1914, 123,532 students studied at state, public and private higher schools (of which 71379 were at state universities). In 1917, 135,065 students studied at the Russian higher school (Ivanov A.E. Higher school of Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries. M., 1991. Table number 28, p. 254)

In state higher educational institutions studied:

• Universities -10 (35,695 students)
• Legal - 4 (1036 students)
• Oriental Studies - 3 (270 students)
• Medical - 2 (2592 students)
• Pedagogical - 4 (894 students)
• Military and naval - 8 (1182 students)
• Theological - 6 (1085 students)
• Engineering and industrial - 15 (23329 students)
• Agricultural - 6 (3307 students)
• Veterinary - 4 (1729 students)
• Artistic - 1 (260 students)

More: Ivanov A.E. Higher school of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. M., 1991.S. 105, 108, III, 117, 130, 136-137, 143, 151, 154, 254.

As the Minister of Education P. N. Ignatiev reported in 1916:

To clarify the degree of need for this type of educational institution, I consider it my duty to provide a certificate that while in England, France and other Western European countries there is one doctor for about 1400-2500 inhabitants, in our country this number rises to 5450. According to the data I have collected only to meet the most modest requirements for providing the population with medical care, in which there would be one doctor per 3900 people - the existing number of doctors would have to increase by 12800 people, which would require the opening of at least 10 new medical schools. The provision of veterinary care is also in a difficult position. According to data collected by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a more or less correct arrangement of veterinary supervision would require at least 8000 veterinarians, while there are slightly more than 3000 veterinarians and the existing 4 veterinary institutes are not able to significantly increase their output. Finally, the lack of specially trained pharmacists has made our pharmaceutical industry completely dependent on foreign markets. Studying further the question in which area of ​​state and social activity there is most of all a shortage of persons with a corresponding higher education, I came across a phenomenon that threatens to slow down not only the general growth of public education, but can also serve as an obstacle to the broad development of professional knowledge. This phenomenon consists in the rapidly growing shortage of teachers of general education subjects in secondary educational institutions, which are equally necessary for both general education and vocational secondary schools. According to statistics, this shortage in some areas of the Empire exceeds 40% of the total number of teachers, as a result of which it is necessary to admit to teaching persons who do not have the appropriate scientific qualification, which inevitably entails a decrease in the level of teaching ... -philological faculties, since the existing ones cannot fully satisfy the requirements imposed on them. It should not be overlooked that all technology, all applied sciences and professions are based on the data of pure science, which is developed precisely in the faculties. Therefore, the main departments of all higher educational institutions must be fed by the forces given by the faculties, and, consequently, the development of higher technical knowledge is also inextricably linked with the parallel growth of higher educational institutions that cultivate pure science. Meanwhile, while the number of higher special schools only in the last 25-30 years has increased by 15 educational institutions, the number of the above faculties has remained unchanged since 1876, that is, with the opening of the Novorossiysk University, since the universities of Tomsk and Saratov still exist without these faculties.

From the "All-subject report of the Minister of Public Education, gr. P.N. Ignatiev dated June 13, 1916

The Minister of Education was compelled to prove the lack of professional specialists and the need to create new higher educational institutions by the fact that in April 1912, before a special meeting and the Council of Ministers, Nicholas II wrote: “I believe that Russia needs to open higher specialized institutions, and even more in secondary technical and agricultural schools, but that there are quite enough existing universities. Accept this resolution as my guiding instruction. " D.L. Saprykin (head of the Center for Research on Scientific and Educational Policy of the Institute of Institute for History and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences) supplements this episode with the following information (44-46):

... this decision (1912) was one of the first experiences of systemic personnel planning throughout the country and was based on an assessment of the needs of the Russian Empire in personnel, carried out by the ministry of L.A. Kasso (the latter really considered it necessary to limit the growth of university education). Under the next minister (P. N. Ignatiev), the previous estimates were revised. ... After the relevant report of the minister, Nicholas II revised the previous decision and authorized the introduction of new faculties at Saratov and Tomsk universities, the creation of new universities (in Rostov-on-Don, Perm, Irkutsk and Nizhny Novgorod) and a number of other higher educational institutions of a university type (this episode described in detail by P. N. Ignatiev on pp. 127-128 of his memoirs). At the same time, Nicholas II always emphasized precisely the need for the advanced development of technology and technical education ... Achievements of Russian technology in the war and post-war period, the rapid increase in "military-technical potential" would have been impossible if the Russian Empire had not been an appropriate "educational potential" would be created. On the eve of the First World War, no more than 25 thousand specialists with science (without medical) and engineering education studied at universities, higher technical schools and academies of the German Empire. In higher educational institutions of other large European countries (Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary) there were even fewer of them. Meanwhile, at least 40-45 thousand specialists of this kind were trained in universities, higher technical, military engineering and commercial schools of the Russian Empire. The level of their training was about the same as that of their European colleagues, evidence of this is, among other things, the successful career of many Russian emigrant engineers who created entire industries and technological schools in Western Europe and America (suffice it to mention I.I.Sikorsky, S.P. Timoshenko, V.K. Zvorykina, V.N. Ipatieva, A.E. Chichibabin).

Saprykin D.L. "Educational potential of the Russian Empire" (IET RAS, Moscow, 2009), pp. 44-46

“At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a little more than 40 thousand students studied in the Russian Empire. In Germany, which was then the leader in Europe, in 1903 40.8 thousand people studied at universities, 12.2 thousand in higher technical educational institutions, and 3.9 thousand in special academies. In 1906, 35.7 thousand students studied at all "faculties" of France, another 5-6 thousand studied in special educational institutions of other departments and Catholic institutes. About 20 thousand people studied at universities in Great Britain in 1900-1901 ... From these data it is clear that the system of Russian higher education in absolute terms was comparable to the systems of other leading European countries ... On the eve of the First World War, Russia was still inferior to Germany in terms of university education, but it was noticeably superior in the field of special education ... Russia already between 1904 and 1914 (together with the USA) became the world leader in the field of technical education, bypassing Germany. "

The education of peasants in agricultural technology also developed rapidly at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1913, 9000 employees of the agricultural information and consulting service worked in Russia. Training courses were organized on cattle breeding and dairy production, the introduction of progressive forms of agricultural production. Much attention was paid to the progress of the out-of-school agricultural education system. If in 1905 the number of students at agricultural courses was 2 thousand, then in 1912 - 58 thousand, and at agricultural readings - respectively 31.6 thousand and 1046 thousand people.

On the whole, by January 1, 1914, there were 8,902,621 students in the Russian Empire. Of these, about 82% of all students studied in primary and lower schools. In secondary general education and special educational institutions - about 6%. In special secondary and lower schools - 3.2%. In various private, national-religious, etc. educational institutions - about 7%. In higher educational institutions - 0.8%. The rest, about 1%, is not categorized by institution. (Statistical Yearbook of Russia for 1915, Pg., 1916. Sep. 1. P. 144).

Summing up the reforms of national education by 1914 \ 1917 (both general primary and secondary, as well as vocational and higher), D.L. Saprykin writes:

A unified education system assuming complete "coordination" of general and vocational education, in particular, the possibility of transitions between general education and vocational educational institutions of the same level was formed in the process of reforms of 1915-1916 carried out by P. N. Ignatiev with the full support of Nicholas II. These reforms created a harmonious, unified system of national education, which included: 1) a 3-4-year cycle of primary education, 2) a 4-year cycle of post-primary education (the first four grades of gymnasiums, a course of higher primary schools or corresponding vocational educational institutions, 3) 4-year cycle of a complete secondary education (the last grades of gymnasiums or vocational secondary educational institutions), 4) higher educational institutions of a university or special type, 5) an adult education system, which began to develop at an accelerated pace, especially after the adoption of the "Prohibition" in 1914. ... In the last ten years of the reign of Nicholas II, a kind of "national project" was implemented: a program for the construction of "school networks", in particular, networks of school buildings throughout the country, which ensured the accessibility of schools for all children of the Empire with a radius of 3 versts. ... During the reign of Nicholas II, Russia firmly entered the five most developed countries in terms of the level of development of science, scientific and technical education and "high-tech industries."

Saprykin D.L. "Educational potential of the Russian Empire" (Institute of History and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 2009)

Educational institutions in Russia before 1917

• Military educational institutions- military academies, military schools, cadet schools, cadet corps, military gymnasiums, (military schools), etc. Navigational Sciences "to prepare for service in artillery, engineers and in the navy. The first military school was opened in 1795 in Gatchina.
• Volost schools- elementary schools in Russia in the 19th century, which trained clerks for the chambers of state property and for rural administrations.
• Sunday schools- private or public general education, vocational or religious educational institutions, where instruction is conducted on Sundays. In Russia, in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, such general educational institutions were founded by the intelligentsia for illiterate and semi-literate workers, peasants, artisans, office workers, as well as working children and adolescents.
• Higher primary schools- occupied an intermediate position between primary and secondary school. At first they were called county schools, since 1872 - city schools, since 1912 they were renamed into higher primary schools.
• Higher Courses for Women- higher educational institutions for women. They arose with the permission of the government in 1869 (the first institutions of this type arose in Moscow and St. Petersburg).
• Gymnasiums- secondary general educational institution. The first secular secondary general education gymnasium in Russia was founded in St. Petersburg in 1726 at the Academy of Sciences under the name Academic gymnasium (it existed until 1805). In accordance with the charter approved in 1864, classical gymnasiums and real gymnasiums.
• Spiritual Academy- higher religious (Orthodox) educational institution. The Moscow Theological Academy is the first higher educational institution in Russia, opened in 1685 (until 1814 it was called the "Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy"), closed in 1919, revived in 1943.
• Theological Seminary- an Orthodox secondary educational institution that trained clergy in Russia.
• Spiritual school- an Orthodox elementary educational institution.
• Primary schools (zemstvo schools)- elementary schools opened by zemstvos (and under their jurisdiction) in rural areas.
• - secular higher educational institutions, which trained mainly specialists in the technical and natural sciences. There were polytechnic and technological institutes, institutes of railway engineers, commercial, agricultural, pedagogical, and medical institutes. In 1802-1804, the first in Russia was opened teacher's institute at the St. Petersburg University.
• - secondary educational institutions of a closed type with full board, mainly for daughters from noble families.
• Cadet Corps- a secondary military educational institution with full board.
• Commercial schools- secondary educational institutions that prepared students for commercial activities.
• Public schools are secondary educational institutions that trained teachers for primary educational institutions.The first institution of this type was opened in St. Petersburg in 1783 and existed until 1804.
• Courses- paid secular institutions of higher education, synonymous with "institute".
• Real gymnasiums- a secondary general educational institution focused on the subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, some of which at the end of the 19th century received the status of real schools.
• Real school- a secondary educational institution that paid more attention to the study of subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle.
• Universities- secular institutions of higher education. The first secular university in Russia was called the Academic University, opened in 1724 and existed until 1766. By the beginning of the XX century in Russia (with the exception of Finland) there were the following universities: Moscow (since 1755), Derpt, or Yurievsky (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Petersburg (1819), Kiev St. Vladimir (1833), Novorossiysk (in Odessa, 1864), Warsaw (1869), Tomsk (1888).
• Teachers' seminaries and schools- educational institutions that trained pedagogues (teachers) teachers for city, county and primary schools.
• Parish schools- elementary schools, led by the clergy. The first educational institutions of this type were opened in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. In accordance with the "Spiritual Regulations" (1721), approved in 1721 under Peter I, it was ordered to establish all-class schools at bishops 'houses (bishops' schools) and monasteries. Since 1864, they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod and were opened at church parishes with a training period of 3-5 years, mainly in rural areas.
• Schools- a collective name in Ancient Russia and in the Russian Empire of general educational institutions. The first state school arose under Prince Vladimir in the 10th century; more than 300 students studied there. Under his son Yaroslav the Wise, schools arose in Novgorod, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Suzdal.

Notes (edit)

Links

• Golubtsova M.A. Moscow school of the Catherine era // Moscow in its past and present. - Ch. 8. - M .: Education, 1911. - S. 3-20.
• The late teacher's notes// Historical Bulletin, 1888. - T. 33. - No. 8. - P. 296-337.
• I. B. Ideas about public education in Catherine's time // Historical Bulletin, 1884. - T. 15. - No. 3. - P. 600-614.
• Ivanov A. Complaints to Tsar Feodor Alekseevich. 1678 // Russian archive, 1895. - Book. 1. - Issue. 2. - S. 277-278. - Under the title: From the archaeological notes of A. A. Martynov. Literacy training fee.

The need for education was obvious ...

At the beginning of the 19th century in Russia, the changes generated by the development of bourgeois relations in all areas of the economy, as well as growing international trade relations, became apparent. The development of industry, the introduction of new technical and agronomic methods in agriculture, the growing cities that required the development of transport, communications - all this increased the need not only for specialists, but also for literate people who could meet the requirements of the time.

But at the same time, according to the data of 1797, the percentage of the literate population was very low: 9.2% in the city and only 2.7% in the countryside. And this figure becomes even more depressing when you consider that only 4% of the country's inhabitants were urban. It should be remembered that at the beginning of the 19th century, those who could draw their signature (instead of marking with a cross) were considered literate. This is a very low literacy criterion.

It is clear that the idea of ​​enlightenment during this period must have been very acute.

The young monarch Alexander I, who ascended the throne at the beginning of the 19th century, turned to new social forces that would help him to strengthen his position - to liberal reformism, since this would have attracted most of the enlightened nobles to his side.

The “young friends” of Emperor Alexander I were involved in the preparation of a number of reforms: Count P.A. Stroganov, Prince A. Czartorizhsky, Count V.P. Kochubei and others. In 1801, they formed an unspoken committee, which was supposed to develop reforms on the most important aspects of life, including the issue of education.

In this regard, in 1802 the Ministry of Public Education was created. His task is to completely reorganize the entire educational process. In 1804, the results of the Ministry's work were published: "The Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire" and "The Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities."

According to these statutes, a system of administration of educational institutions was created. Public education was divided into 4 stages:

- parish schools;

- county schools;

- gymnasiums;

- universities.

All these stages of training were interconnected. In addition, the entire territory of Russia was divided into 6 educational districts according to the number of universities that existed and were supposed to be opened: Moscow, Dorpat, Vilensky, Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov. Each educational district was headed by a trustee who, in his person, exercised control of the Ministry of Education over all educational institutions of the given district. The rector of the university was also directly subordinate to the trustee.

The rector and professors of the university supervised the gymnasiums that were part of the district, supervised the work of the director and teachers.

Accordingly, the director of the gymnasium supervised the work of the district schools in his district, and the superintendent of the district schools - the activities of the parish schools. This system operated not only in the field of control, but also contained the continuity of curricula at all levels.

Learning Grade Objectives

Parish schools

The term of study is 1 year. They taught the children of the lower strata, which included religious education, the skills of reading, writing, counting and preparation for admission to the district school.

County schools (in county and provincial cities)

The term of study is 2 years. Intended for the children of small traders, artisans, wealthy peasants. The curriculum provided for preparation for entering the gymnasium.

Gymnasiums (in provincial cities)

The term of study is 4 years. The purpose of the training is to prepare noble children for civil service or for admission to the university.

Universities

The term of study is 3 years.

According to the Charter, the development of curricula, the selection of the rector, deans and professors were made by the academic council.

The educational reform of 1804 was distinguished by progressiveness and free education.

But this is on the surface. If you dig deeper, then everything that is planned to be done according to the principle "wanted the best" is obtained according to the principle "as always".

In fact, the government was removed from the maintenance of the parish schools, and they passed to the discretion of the local authorities. When admitted to the gymnasium, the rule of non-class education did not work: it was required to provide "free" from the landowners. Noble boarding schools (intended only for children of the nobility) began to form at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities or, to some extent, in the likeness of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum.

Later (after the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising), Alexander I strengthened the reactionary course, which also affects education.

In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education, headed by the former Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, Prince A.P. Golitsyn. His activities began with a revision of the educational process, revision of curricula, teaching of natural science was prohibited in parish schools, philosophy, political economy, commerce theory and technology were excluded from the gymnasium course. Some universities were recognized as hotbeds of revolutionary infection. They began to eradicate it, first in Kazan, and then in other universities. And the events of December 14, 1825, even caused the adoption of extraordinary measures: the creation of the III department and the corps of gendarmes, measures to strengthen the autocratic power and the nobility as its support. In the spring of 1826, the Ministry of Education received instructions to revise the entire system of public education. This was done by the Committee for the Organization of Educational Institutions, the activities of which were determined by the Minister of Education Shishkov: “ Stop everything harmful in teaching and upbringing, eradicate and turn to principles based on the purity of faith, loyalty and duty to the sovereign and fatherland. "

D. Doe "Minister of Education Shishkov"

The new Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov, who in his youth was friends with the leading people of his time Zhukovsky, Karamzin, and others, took a reactionary position. This committee existed until 1835 and the result of its activity was the establishment of class affiliation: children of the bourgeois and peasants were to study in parish schools; in uyezd - merchant children, in gymnasiums - children of nobles. The curriculum was drawn up accordingly. The structure of education, created in 1804, was broken: now universities did not supervise lower and secondary schools, and all educational institutions of the district were transferred under the supervision and control of a trustee, who was appointed by the Minister of Education.

Let us consider in more detail the situation in educational institutions.

Parish schools

The process and system of education in different regions of Russia were, of course, different. But in general, in 686 uyezd cities of Russia by 1825 there were only 1,095 lower educational institutions. At the same time, there were 12,179 taverns and drinking houses there. The curriculum was limited: the law of God, reading, writing, and the four rules of arithmetic. There were no textbooks, everything was memorized "by voice" and "by heart." The combination of 6–7 years old children with 14–15 years old boys in one class, overload (sometimes up to 70–80 students in one class), negligence, and sometimes cruelty of teachers created an atmosphere unsuitable for learning.

County schools

District school in Biryuch, Belgorod region

Their condition was somewhat better than that of the parishes. There were 15 subjects: the law of God, arithmetic, geometry, grammar, general and Russian geography, primary physics, natural science. All subjects were taught by two teachers. There were more comfortable rooms, better educated teachers, and at least a minimal amount of textbooks.

But cramming, rods flourished there, teachers were not always professionally trained. These educational institutions were intended for merchants, bourgeoisie, wealthy artisans. The purpose of the training is to prepare students for practical activities. According to the Charter of 1828, they taught the law of God, the Russian language, Sacred history, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, calligraphy, drawing. The term of study was 3 years. Now the district school did not prepare for admission to the gymnasium. The continuity of the curriculum was destroyed.

Gymnasiums

The school curriculum was versatile and extensive. Social sciences were a priority, religious disciplines were absent. The subjects were taught in cycles, each of which was led by one of eight teachers. Even a simple listing of subjects gives an idea of ​​the breadth of the gymnasium program:

• math cycle (algebra, physics, trigonometry, geometry);
• fine arts (literature, that is, literature, aesthetics, theory of poetry);
• natural history (botany, mineralogy, zoology);
• foreign languages ​​(Latin, French, German);
• the cycle of philosophical sciences (ethics);
• economic sciences (general statistics and the Russian state, commercial theory);
• history and geography;
• music, dancing, gymnastics.

30 teaching hours made up the weekly curriculum. School day: from 8 to 12 and from 14 to 16 hours. On Wednesdays and Saturdays, classes lasted from 8 am to 11 am.

To supervise the students, the posts of class supervisors were established, who were supposed to monitor the behavior of high school students during school hours and after school hours. Corporal punishment also existed in gymnasiums.

By the end of the first half of the 19th century in St. Petersburg, for example, there were only 5 gymnasiums, and at the end of the 50s the total number of gymnasium students in St. Petersburg numbered 1,425.

Universities

Moscow University, opened in 1755, was the center of higher education not only in Moscow, but throughout Russia. In addition to him, in the first half of the 19th century there were also Derpt and Vilensky universities. In the first half of the 19th century, outstanding scientists, public figures, great writers graduated from it (historians S. Soloviev, Granovsky, teacher Ushinsky, literary critic Belinsky, writers Herzen, Griboyedov, Turgenev, Lermontov also studied there). According to the charter of 1804, Moscow University had 4 faculties: 1) physical and mathematical sciences, 2) moral and political sciences, 3) verbal sciences, 4) medical and medical sciences.

In 1805, 2 more universities were opened: Kazan and Kharkov. Universities were centers of scientific and educational work in the educational district. The financial support of universities was mainly entrusted to the local nobility, so many of them experienced financial difficulties, and in this regard, with the arrangement of laboratories, libraries, and other things important for teaching. Another difficulty is the lack of students in newly opened universities. Often the provincial nobility was wary of universities. But even in the universities themselves, a difficult situation was formed, especially in Kazan, when Magnitsky became the trustee of the educational district there. NP Zagoskin, the author of the history of Kazan University, characterized this era (1819–1826) as follows: “Mass dismissals of professors who were disliked by Magnitsky, who were recognized by him as unreliable, with their replacement by trustees, pharisaic good intentions, often hiding under its guise ignorance and moral flaws; the development of hypocritical bigotry among teachers and students; the prohibition of some sciences and the limitation of teaching others within the framework of narrow and tendentious curricula ”.

In 1819, St. Petersburg University was formed from the Main Pedagogical Institute. At first, it consisted of three departments: 1) legal and philosophical sciences, 2) historical and verbal sciences, 3) mathematical and physical sciences. But there was no fourth, medical department, since there was a Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg. In 1821, Magnitsky's instruction was also distributed to St. Petersburg University. In the early 1940s, the departments of the Faculty of Philosophy of St. Petersburg University were transformed into independent faculties - history and philology and physics and mathematics. In 1854, another faculty was created - the oriental one.

Gradually, the influx of students to Russian universities increased. If at first the number of students in some universities was estimated at two dozen (for example, in St. Petersburg, Kazan), then during the period from 1833 to 1852 the total number of students (in all universities) increased from 2725 to 3758.

By the middle of the 19th century, a Museum of Natural Sciences, a Clinical Institute were created at Moscow University, with an eye clinic, a botanical garden with two greenhouses, a midwife institute with a maternity hospital, and a rich library. An astronomical observatory was opened in Presnya, wonderful lecturers and teachers appear, whose lectures fascinated students. Such was the professor of general history at Moscow University Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky, whose lectures were attended not only by students, but also scientists, ladies, officers and just people interested in history.

Female education

The issue of female education was not an easy decision in Russia. It was assumed that education is necessary only for women of noble origin. And educational institutions should only be closed. This is how the institutions of noble maidens appeared.

Smolny Institute

The most privileged institution for noble maidens was the Smolny Institute, or the Educational Society for Noble Maidens, as it was formerly called. It was founded in 1764 within the walls of the Resurrection Novodevichy Convent near the village of Smolnaya. At the beginning of the 18th century, on the banks of the Neva, Peter I built the Smolyanoy Yard, where resin was mined for the needs of the Admiralty, and the Summer Palace under Elizaveta Petrovna, which was named Smolny. Later, the Resurrection Convent was founded here, the ensemble of which was designed by V.V. Rastrelli. In 1797 the monastery was closed, in the rest of its premises an almshouse was opened for noble widows ("The Widow's House"), and for the institute in 1806–1808 a special three-story building was built according to the project of G. Quarenghi.

The first enrollment at the institute was 200 girls of noble origin from the age of 6-7; the girls were completely isolated from their families for 12 years while at the institute. Educational projects bore traces of the influence of the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau on the education of a "new breed of people." The Smolny Institute was called upon to create a new type of noblewoman. An extensive plan was created for the mental, moral and physical and education of girls. The program of general education subjects in it was very extensive, in addition, aesthetic subjects occupied a significant place: music, dance, drawing.

Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"

The pupils of the institute were divided into 4 ages:

I - from 6 to 9 years old;

II - from 9 to 12 years old;

III - from 12 to 15 years old;

IV - from 15 to 18 years old.

Curriculum: the law of God and foreign languages, Russian, arithmetic, geography, history, and at the third age, architecture, experimental physics and heraldry.

To prepare future housewives and mothers, the pupils were taught housekeeping, embroidery, and sewing. But the main goal of education was the formation of a "new noble woman", educated, aesthetically developed, occupying a prominent place in high life. At the direction of Catherine II, both in the institute itself and in the houses of St. Petersburg nobles, balls and performances were held, which were attended by the students of the institute. Meetings were held solemnly at the end of the school year. Courtiers, foreign ambassadors, noble nobility, and the highest military ranks were invited. Gradually, the number of institutes for noble maidens increased: in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov, Astrakhan, Nizhny Novgorod, Odessa, Saratov, Orenburg, Tiflis, Kiev and other cities.

But if for the education of the daughters of noble families, institutes of noble maidens were opened, then girls of philistine origin (daughters of artisans, retired lower military ranks, petty traders, petty officials) could study only in special "philistine" educational institutions, the first of which was the Meshchansky School at Smolny institute. It taught the law of God, handicrafts, arithmetic, home economics. The purpose of the school was to educate good housewives and God-fearing mothers of families. In addition to the Meshchansky School for girls of the middle class, the Mariinsky Institute, the House of Diligence on the 13th line of Vasilyevsky Island, the Orphan Institute on the Moika Embankment in St. Petersburg, as well as orphanages in Moscow, Kronstadt and Irkutsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Simbirsk houses of industriousness were formed.

Private boarding houses

In addition to state educational institutions, private education (private boarding schools) was developed in Russia. The boarding houses were divided into 3 categories depending on the curriculum: the boarding school program of the first category corresponded to the program of the gymnasiums, the second - to the district schools, and the third - to the parish schools. In boarding houses of the 1st category, children of wealthy nobles were mainly trained. They paid great attention to teaching French and German languages, dancing, good manners, music, fencing. Pensions of the II category were popular among the merchants, wealthy philistines. The curriculum of boarding schools of the II category included mainly general education subjects: mathematics, history, geography, chemistry, physics and any foreign language. Children of poor nobles, small merchants and even wealthy state peasants studied in boarding houses of the III category. The programs of the best women's boarding schools approached the curriculum of the institutes of noble maidens. In the program: the law of God, Russian, German and French, arithmetic, history, geography, drawing, music, dancing, handicrafts. In a few metropolitan boarding houses, mythology, aesthetics, and natural history were also added. The tuition fees at the women's boarding school were higher than at the men's one.

The peculiarity of private boarding schools: the isolation of pupils from life in general, teaching was carried out in such a way that subjects were not related to life, it was allowed to read only textbooks and the Holy Scriptures, the lives of saints, most of the private boarding schools were kept by foreigners, so the training was to the detriment of Russian culture. Often, the graduates of these boarding schools even spoke poor Russian.

Home education

A significant part of the noble children received home education and upbringing. Its quality largely depended on the cultural level of the parents themselves, although it did not depend much on them, since it did not depend much on them. after the nanny, at the age of 7-8, children were transferred to the education of tutors (boys) and governesses (girls), mainly of German or French origin. Often the tutors did not have any education, and in their homeland they were hairdressers or lackeys. We find many examples of this in the literature of the 19th century. In addition to the tutor, they hired a Russian teacher - mostly a gymnasium teacher, who was supposed to take a gymnasium course with them. According to contemporaries, “the knowledge of French, English and German languages, the ability to play the piano, some handicrafts, passing a short course in the law of God, history, geography and arithmetic, as well as something about the history of literature, were considered obligatory for a well-bred girl. mainly French. "

In the wealthy houses of the capital, boys and girls were taught dancing by specially invited teachers. In poorer families, dance teachers were either dispensed with or taught by their parents. Many outstanding people spoke sharply about the home education of noble children. A.S. Pushkin: “In Russia, home education is the most inadequate, the most immoral. The child is surrounded by some lackeys, sees vile examples, is self-willed or enslaved, does not receive any notions about justice, about the mutual relations of people, about true honor. His upbringing is limited to knowledge of two or three languages ​​and the initial foundation of all sciences taught by any hired teacher. " It is worth recalling the level of upbringing of the landowners in the poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" to understand what home education could be.

However, among the nobles there were also examples of high morality, disinterestedness, kindness and generosity - we see this both in real life and in literary works: the educated and intelligent Countess E.P. Rostopchina, reverent for his father, but brave in battle, Andrei Bolkonsky from L. Tolstoy's novel War and Peace, patrons of the Tretyakov brothers - examples can be multiplied and multiplied.

G. Kordik "Countess E. Rostopchina"

Closed educational institutions for noble children

Cadet Corps

The system of closed educational institutions for children of the nobility mainly consisted of military schools (cadet corps): the Corps of Pages, the Noble Regiment, the School of Column Guides (staff officers), etc. Military service was considered prestigious for the nobles. The corps provided the pupils with general education and military training. In the first years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, special attention began to be paid to the cadet corps, but the failures of the Crimean War clearly showed the shortcomings in the training of officers.

Page Corps

It was founded in 1802 and was originally located in the building of the former Vorontsov palace. It was intended for the children of the noblest noble families (sons no lower than a lieutenant general or civilians of the 2nd and 1st class.) Young men were prepared for court or military service (in the guards). Therefore, although the Corps of Pages was listed in the system of military educational institutions and was under the command of their leader, it differed sharply from them. According to the conditions of life and teaching, the building was closer to the aristocratic court boarding houses. Much here was completely different than in other, even closed, educational institutions. One of the pupils of the Corps of Pages recalled: "A magnificent double staircase, decorated with mirrors and statues, ceiling paintings" - everything was different from the atmosphere of the state institution. The form of the pages - a black uniform like a tailcoat with a red collar, narrow trousers with red piping and a cocked hat - were sewn of thin cloth, in contrast to the uniform of the cadets. The junior and senior dortois were located separately. Each room had 3 rows of beds "with good linen and a warm woolen blanket ... By the bed there was a chest of drawers for things, books, notebooks ... Cleanliness, order and lighting were impeccable everywhere." Each pupil had a servant. The food in the building was excellent, and they were not too burdened by their studies. Military training consisted of setting the guards in the winter, and in the summer for a month - training in combat service in the camps. On the day of the divorce of the guard in the palace, "tiny page guards were attached to the tall guards" and followed them. The pages also took part in parades together with the II Cadet Corps and the Noble Regiment.

Memories of contemporaries abound about the "pranks" of the guards officers, noisy comradely feasts, novels with secular beauties. But when the "dashing time" came, the guards units became participants in the most difficult battles. And the guards officers, former cadets or pages, dancers and duelists, walked under the enemy canister in front of their soldiers. Many prominent statesmen of the first half of the 19th century were brave warriors: the famous General Ermolov, Prince Vorontsov, the Tuchkov brothers ...

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

It was a completely special educational institution that had no analogues in Russia. The Lyceum project was developed by Speransky as an educational institution for gifted children. Lyceum students were supposed to study the history of law, jurisprudence, logic; in the historical sciences, the greatest attention was paid to national history. The section of literature included fiction, stylistics, linguistics, aesthetics. Fine sciences included calligraphy, painting, dancing, gymnastics, horse riding, fencing, and swimming. The teachers at the Lyceum were professors of the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute A.P. Kunitsyn, I.K. Kaidanov, Ya.I. Kartsev, N.F. literature Fr. Matv. Gauenschild.

Director V. F. Malinovsky, a man of versatile education, progressive views, a like-minded Speransky, he considered it necessary to teach each student to independent critical and philosophical thinking, to instill in him the desire to live and work "for the common good." After the early death of Malinovsky, E.A.Engelgardt continued the traditions of lyceum education. The students highly appreciated him as a person and a mentor: “He never attended classes, giving full freedom and independence to the professors-teachers ... and acted on the pupils by daily communication with them. In his junior year he used to come almost every day after evening tea and entertained us with reading and conversation (sometimes jokingly); these conversations never had the character of pedagogical mentoring, but were adapted to age, served to develop upbringing and instill in them the rules of morality; he especially insisted on the importance of the principle of truthfulness ... In his senior year, his conversations tended towards the development of the concept of duty, "- recalled M. Kokhanovsky. You can read more about the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum on our website:.

Education in the second half of the 19th century

In the second half of the XIX century. There was a need to train specialists with technical education. In the 60s of the XIX century. A number of higher technical educational institutions were opened: the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology (1862), the Mining Institute (1866), the Moscow Higher Technical School (1868), etc. Along with this, new higher technical educational institutions were opened, their number increased from 7 to almost 60 By the middle of the XIX century. There were already 6 universities in Russia: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Dorpat and Kiev. Universities were the largest scientific and educational centers in the country. They trained teachers for secondary and higher schools, doctors, scientists. Universities were the focus of scientific thought, became widely known thanks to outstanding scientist-professors: at Moscow University they were the historians T. N. Granovsky and S. M. Soloviev; in St. Petersburg - mathematicians P. L. Chebyshev, V. Ya. Bunyakovsky, physicist E. Kh. Lenz, zoologist S. M. Kutorga; in Kazan - mathematician N. I. Lobachevsky, chemist N. N. Zinin. In addition to scientific and educational work, university scientists consulted on national economic issues, being members of various committees and commissions, conducted educational work, read public lectures, etc. The term of study at universities was increased to 5 years. The bulk of the student body in the second half of the 19th century was made up of raznochintsy, whose property status was insufficient. Tuition fees have steadily increased. If in the 60s and 70s students of the capital's universities contributed 50 rubles a year, and the provincial ones - 20 rubles, then according to the charter of 1884, the fee was increased to 60 rubles, and after 1887 (that is, after the assassination attempt on Alexander III 1 March 1887, student of St. Petersburg University Alexander Ulyanov), the fee increased to 100 rubles. in year. State scholarships were used by no more than 15% of students in each faculty. Housing conditions for most of the students were difficult: they settled in poor neighborhoods, in cheaper rooms. Despite certain difficulties, university education developed. By the end of the 19th century, Russia occupied one of the first places in the world in terms of theoretical developments in many branches of science: chemistry, physics, natural science, mathematics. A significant contribution to these achievements was made by university scientists D.I.Mendeleev, A.G. Stoletov, I.I.Sechenov, A.A.Markov, and others.

The women's issue at that time was very acute and it became clear that education was the key to changing the social, economic and marital status of women. The Ministry of Education has begun preparations for the reform of the girls' school. And already in August 1857, the opening of the school took place, which received the name of the Mariinsky, tk. it was under the patronage of Empress Maria Alexandrovna.

It became open and formally all-estates - to study in it were allowed "girls of all free states, without distinction of estates" from 9 to 13 years old. The curriculum was designed for 7 years. In 1862, the Mariinsky Women's Schools were renamed gymnasiums; just as in the men's gymnasiums, the full course of study in them was seven years, the shortened one - three years. In addition, at the Mariinsky gymnasiums, it was allowed to create pedagogical courses, which gave high school students a special education.

Women's schools of I and II categories were opened - six and three years. Such schools were opened in many cities of Russia: Tula, Smolensk, Samara, N. Novgorod, Chernigov, Vologda, Saratov, Ryazan, Tver. In the second half of the 19th century, women's boarding schools were replaced by private women's gymnasiums. In 1873, a female gymnasium of S. A. Arsenyeva was opened in Moscow. In private educational institutions, less subject to administrative control, talented teachers managed to implement new methods and progressive ideas.

In April 1876, the "Regulations" were adopted, according to which the Ministry of Education was given the right to establish higher women's courses in university cities, and on September 20, 1878, the Higher Women's Courses were opened, which soon received the unofficial name "Bestuzhevsky". there was a great need for higher education for women. Unfortunately, the issue of higher education for women remained unresolved. The few higher courses for women that existed in Russia in the 19th century (except for the Bestuzhevsky, Lubyansky and Ger'e courses in Moscow, higher courses for women in Kiev and Kazan) could not satisfy the growing demand. there was a great need for higher education for women. Unfortunately, the issue of higher education for women remained unresolved. The few higher courses for women that existed in Russia in the 19th century (except for the Bestuzhevsky-Lubyansky and Ger'e courses in Moscow, higher courses for women in Kiev and Kazan) could not satisfy the growing demand. In addition, these courses, being private educational institutions in accordance with the Regulations of 1876 and 1889, could not give those who graduated from them the right to enter the public service.

Lecture 14

Education and pedagogical thought in Russia in the 19th century

Plan

1. Development of the state education system in Russia in the XIX century.

1.1. The first period in the development of education.

1.2. The second period of development of education.

1.3. The third period of the development of education.

2. Development of domestic pedagogical thought in the XIX century.

2.1. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov.

2.2. Nikolay Fedorovich Bunakov.

2.3. Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin.

2.4. Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov.

2.5. Sergey Alexandrovich Rachinsky.

Literature

Dzhurinsky A.N... History of education and pedagogical thought: Textbook for universities. - M .: Vlados, 2003

History of pedagogy and education / Ed. A.M. Piskunov. - M., 2001.

Konstantinov N.A.., E. N. Medynsky, M. F. Shabaeva. History of pedagogy. - M .: Education, 1982.

Latyshina D.I.... History of Pedagogy (History of Education and Pedagogical Thought): Textbook. - M .: Gardariki, 2007.

The development of the state education system in Russia in the 19th century.

In the XIX century. in Russia, the creation of an education system focused on the best Western traditions continues. Domestic pedagogy is developing on the basis of Western pedagogical ideas. However, from the second quarter of the XIX century. serious attempts are being made to identify and substantiate the distinctive features of Russian pedagogy, to reveal its unique character. In the process of development and reform of education in the XIX century. Three periods can be distinguished: from the beginning of the century to 1824, 1825 - the beginning of the 1860s, 1860-1890.

The beginning of the 19th century. commemorated in Russia liberal reforms of Emperor Alexander I... The government paid close attention to the development of education in the Empire. Among other ministries established by the emperor in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, which led a reform aimed at creating a public education system in Russia. In the "Preliminary Rules of Public Education" (1803), and then in the "Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinated to Universities" (1804), it was said that "for the moral education of citizens, according to the duties of each state, four types of schools are defined, namely: 1) parish, 2) county, 3) provincial, or gymnasiums, 4) universities ”. The basic principles of public education were proclaimed that it was devoid of words, free of charge and generally accessible. According to the "Charter ..." Russia was divided into six educational districts according to the number of universities. In addition to the already existing Moscow, Vilensky and Derpt, in 1804-1805. Universities were opened in Kazan and Kharkov and the main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg, which in 1819 was transformed into a university. The charter introduced a strict dependence of the links of public education: parish schools were subordinate to the superintendent of the district school, district schools to the director of the gymnasium, the gymnasium to the rector of the university, and the university to the trustee of the educational district.

Parish schools assumed an initial level of education with a training period of one year, they were opened one per parish (administrative church unit) in each city or village. The curriculum of the parish schools included the law of God and moralizing, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic, as well as reading some sections from the book On the Positions of Man and Citizen, classes were held nine hours a week. County schools opened in county and provincial cities, had a two-year training period and provided in-depth training to children who graduated from parish schools. Organized earlier during the reform of the end of the XVIII century. small schools were transformed into county schools, new ones were created. The content of education in the district schools was represented by the law of God, the study of the book "On the Positions of Man and Citizen", Russian grammar, general and Russian geography, general and Russian history, arithmetic, the basics of geometry, physics and natural history, the initial rules of technology related to the economy edge and its industry, painting. Only two teachers taught at the school, the rich program did not provide an opportunity for deep mastery of knowledge in many subjects.

Gymnasiums were opened in provincial cities, the course of study in them was four years, they represented the middle stage of education, following the county school. The curriculum of the gymnasium included a wide range of subjects: Latin, French and German, history, geography, statistics, natural history, experimental physics, theoretical and applied mathematics, philosophy, fine and commercial sciences, drawing, technology, music, gymnastics, and dance. In addition, in the first grade logic and grammar were added, in the second - psychology and "moral teaching", in the third - aesthetics and rhetoric, in the fourth - legal and political sciences. Graduates from the gymnasium could enter the university. By 1811, the imbalance and overload of the content of gymnasium education became obvious, political economy, philosophy, commercial sciences were excluded from it, the course of natural science was shortened, however, under the influence of German traditions, the teaching of the law of God and the Greek language was introduced.

Universities autonomy was granted, including the right to elect the rector, deans and appoint professors, an elected university court. The higher school carried out the functions of administrative management of educational institutions that were part of the district; they were sent to schools with the inspection of a professor. In general, the reform stimulated the creation of a large number of new educational institutions and the spread of education.

In 1810, Alexander I signed the "Decree on the Lyceum", which gave rise to the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - an institution for children of the higher nobility, combining the secondary and higher levels of education. Later, following the model of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, other educational institutions of this kind began to open. By the 1820s. Odessa, Yaroslavl lyceums and the Nizhyn gymnasium of higher sciences (later - a lyceum) were opened.

In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Education. In 1819, the plans of schools and gymnasiums were changed, compulsory reading of the Holy Scripture was introduced, philosophy, statistics, natural law, ethics, etc. were withdrawn. Golitsyn, who became Minister of Public Education and Spiritual Affairs in 1817, religious principles were the basis of education. The purpose of mental development was proclaimed the combination of faith and knowledge; in educational institutions of all levels, great attention was paid to the study of the dogmas of the Holy Scriptures. To a certain extent, these changes were a government reaction to "Western free-thinking", whose penetration into Russia sharply increased after the war of 1812-1814, as well as to the ever-increasing reformist and revolutionary ferment of society, the autocratic-serf foundations of which were experiencing an acute crisis. In 1819, tuition fees were introduced in gymnasiums, parish and district schools, changes were made to the curricula of primary schools, "reading from the Holy Scriptures" was introduced, and teaching of natural sciences was prohibited. University autonomy has suffered significantly.

Thus, in the first quarter of the XIX in. As a result of reforms in Russia, a state education system was created, the basis of which was the relationship of continuity between educational institutions of all levels.

Start the second period in the development of education in the XIX century. associated with the reign Nicholas I(years of government - 1825-1855), during whose reign the education system and school policy underwent important changes. The new emperor sought to develop a "uniform" school policy that would be aimed at strengthening social stability. Count Lieven was appointed Minister of Education, who carried out a similar course in the new "Charter on Primary and Secondary Schools" (1828), which outlined the ways of reforming education. The "Charter ..." confirmed the existing four-level education system and proclaimed the principle - "each class has its own level of education." In accordance with this, parish schools were intended for the lower classes, district schools for the children of merchants, artisans and other "urban inhabitants", gymnasiums for the children of noblemen and officials. School life took place under the strict supervision of the authorities and the police. For misconduct, all kinds of penalties were imposed, including a rod, expulsion from school, and for teachers - dismissal from service.

In 1833 S.S. Uvarov (1786-1855), who remained in this post until 1849 and pursued a conservative school policy. Uvarov put forward three principles of upbringing and education: "Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality", which corresponded to state policy and the idea of ​​national revival. In 1832-1842. the education system has significantly expanded, the number of students in various state educational institutions increased from 69,300 to 99,800.

Thus, as a result of the reforms of the second quarter of the nineteenth century. each type of school acquired a complete character and was intended to serve the population of a particular class. The successive connection between educational institutions, introduced in 1804, was abolished, and the access of children of the taxable estate to secondary and higher schools is difficult. Parish schools designed for boys and girls from the “lowest fortunes” were not supposed to prepare them for district schools. County schools, intended for the children of merchants, artisans, bourgeois and other city dwellers not classified as nobility, have now become three-year educational institutions. They studied the law of God, sacred and church history, the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry (up to stereometry) without evidence, geography, abridged general and Russian history, calligraphy, drawing and drawing. The teaching of physics and natural science was discontinued, and mathematics had to be taught dogmatically. In order to distract the children of the underprivileged urban estates from entering the gymnasium, it was allowed to open additional courses at the district schools, where those wishing to continue their studies could get any profession.

During this period, various ministries are actively involved in the development of secondary education. Thus, in 1839, the Ministry of Finance opened real classes at some gymnasiums and district schools; The Ministry of Jurisprudence organizes gymnasium courses in jurisprudence, the Ministry of State Property organizes secondary schools of advanced type. In the gymnasiums subordinated to the Ministry of Education, a course was taken for classical education, but in 1849-1851. the reorganization of the gymnasiums took place, in accordance with which three types of gymnasiums were established: with two ancient languages ​​(classical), with training in natural science and jurisprudence, with training in jurisprudence. In 1835, the Ministry of Education issued a number of documents defining a new procedure for the functioning of universities, which significantly curtailed their autonomy. In 1834 a university was opened in Kiev, but due to unrest in Poland in 1830 the Vilnius University was closed. Changes have also taken place in the field of vocational education: in 1828 the Technological Institute was established in St. Petersburg, in 1832 - the Institute of Civil Engineers; the Mining and Forestry Institutes were reorganized. In general, in the 1830-1850s. lower and secondary agricultural, technical and commercial educational institutions were opened throughout Russia.

Since the early 1830s. in the villages where state and appanage peasants lived, primary schools were created by the department of state property and by the appanage department. Their task was to teach peasant children to read and write and to train clerks and clerks for institutions that governed the peasants. In these schools, much attention was paid to developing students' good handwriting and mastering their oral count. Schools existed at the expense of public fees from peasants, by 1858 they had been created 2,975 activist, writer, outstanding educator V.F. Odoevsky (1804-1868). He carried out pedagogical guidance of the educational activities of rural schools of state peasants.

The number of schools intended for the people until 1861 was so small that the peasant population and the townspeople of the lower classes remained almost without exception illiterate. The most common in the countryside were literacy schools with a training period of one to two years. They were created by the peasants themselves at their own expense. The teachers here were literate clerks of the local church, retired soldiers or former courtyards, but these schools turned out to be viable, in some places they could be found even at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Education of the younger generation in the 19th century. characterized by attention to the activities of foreign teachers and the adoption of measures to protect national education. The decree of Nicholas I, issued in 1831, obliged to increase supervision over private educational institutions and foreign teachers. Foreign teachers and mentors who had certificates from Russian universities and additional positive characteristics were allowed to teach. In Russia, a system of secondary pedagogical education, mainly for women, was developing, which constituted a serious competition for foreign teachers in the field of family education.

At first 1860s... begins third period in the development of domestic education, characterized by the preparation of a new reform. At this time, huge political transformations took place in Russia, which significantly influenced the moral climate in society. Leading public figures of that time viewed the abolition of serfdom (1861) as the most important condition for the moral development of the people and the country, a necessary prerequisite for the struggle for further progress. The idea of ​​the unity and equality of all people, of the dignity of every human person, the need for an attentive and humane attitude to its needs and requests began to take root in the consciousness of a Russian person. The liberation of the individual from class, household, family, and religious bonds becomes the main task of the generation of the intelligentsia in the 1860s.

The reforms of this period caused an extremely broad democratic movement, a powerful spiritual upsurge in Russian society, the desire of the leading figures of that time to actively participate in the renewal of Russian reality, direct its development in accordance with their ideas and ideals, gave rise to hope for a quick and complete death of the “past times”. At that time, Russia was literally languishing under the burden of heightened hopes aroused by the peasant reform and the reforms that were expected to follow. “Everyone waited, everyone said: the golden age is not behind us, but ahead,” wrote M.Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Enlightenment was recognized as the most important means of liberation and personal development. Belief in the power of enlightenment was characteristic of all who thirsted for the renewal of Russian society. The idea of ​​the need to defend the interests of the masses of the people, primarily the peasants, and of fulfilling their "duty" to the people, became widespread. This debt could be paid primarily in the form of spreading education and culture among the masses. This is related to the participation of wide circles of the intelligentsia in cultural and educational work, the creation of Sunday schools, the emergence of special publishing houses, the development of pedagogical journalism, etc.

In the 1860s. for the first time in Russian history, institutions and organizations appeared whose activities were aimed at spreading knowledge among the masses. On the initiative of the progressive intelligentsia, mainly student youth, in the middle of the 19th century. emerged Sunday schools - educational schools for adult peasants, artisans, etc. The first public libraries and reading rooms were created - public free libraries for working people. Popular readings began to be held, which were one of the most common forms of popularizing general educational, professional and applied knowledge.

Since the 1860s. there is a flourishing of Russian national pedagogy, whose representatives have made a worthy contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought and brought primary education to a new level of development. Following the naturalists, scientific societies began to organize in the field of the humanities. One of the first in this area was the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Society (1869), which brought together a wide range of scientists, public educators, who set themselves the task of promoting the scientific development of pedagogical problems. Among the active participants in the society were K.D. Ushinsky, N.Kh. Wessel, P.F. Kapterev and other prominent teachers. Members of the society organized branches in other cities, led pedagogical courses, and delivered lectures in various audiences. In 1871, the St. Petersburg Society for the Promotion of the Initial Education of Preschool Children was created. The result of his activities were courses on the training of teachers in families and kindergartens, lectures on preschool education, etc. The St. Petersburg society laid the foundation for the spread of such societies throughout Russia.

Teachers' congresses played a special role in the development of pedagogical thought, in improving the methods of education and training. The first teachers' congress took place in 1867 in the Aleksandrovsky district of the Yekaterinoslav province. In 1870, a congress of teachers was held in Simferopol; K.D. Ushinsky. The congress at the All-Russian Polytechnic Exhibition in 1872 brought together about 700 participants, before whom prominent teachers and methodologists spoke. In the post-reform period, more attention began to be paid to teacher education. 4-6-week pedagogical courses for raising the qualifications of primary school teachers have become widespread. K. D. Ushinsky developed a plan for the training of primary school teachers. According to this plan, all zemstvo teachers' seminaries and schools built their work. He also expressed the idea of ​​creating pedagogical faculties at universities. All this stimulated attention to improving teacher education. In general, the most significant development of school and pedagogy in Russia in the 19th century. fell on its second half and was the result of large-scale reforms.

In 1860, the "Statute on Women's Schools of the Ministry of Public Education" was adopted, according to which two types of women's schools were established: schools of the first category (six years of study) and the second category (three years). In schools of the first category, the law of God, the Russian language, grammar, literature, arithmetic, geography, general and Russian history, the beginnings of natural history and physics, calligraphy, and handicrafts were studied.

In 1864, the "Statute on elementary public schools" was approved, in which elementary schools of all departments, urban and rural schools, maintained at the expense of the treasury, societies and individuals, were attributed to primary education. Primary schools taught the law of God, reading from books of the civil and church press, writing, four arithmetic operations and, where possible, church singing. All teaching was to be conducted in Russian. The duration of training was not indicated in the Regulations. In fact, in the best zemstvo and city schools, it was three years, in many others - two years. All primary public schools, which were previously under the jurisdiction of various departments, were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education, but an exception was made for primary schools opened by the clergy: they remained under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod. In general, the reform of primary education, in accordance with the Regulations of 1864, which meant its non-divine nature, gave the right to open primary schools to local governments (zemstvos), allowed women to teach, and established collegial school governing bodies.

In the same year, the "Statute on Zemstvo Institutions" was published, according to which zemstvos could open primary schools and maintain them economically. During the first ten years of their existence, the zemstvos created a significant network of primary rural schools. In some zemstvos, the training of folk teachers was organized in zemstvo teacher schools, courses and congresses of teachers were held, and school libraries were organized. However, the rights of zemstvos were limited and were reduced mainly to solving financial and economic issues, zemstvos had no right to interfere in the educational process and the activities of schools. Zemsky schools belonged to the number of ministerial schools and were officially called "Primary public schools in the provinces, which are subject to the Regulation on Zemstvo Institutions." They were more popular among the population than other elementary schools. It was the zemstvo schools that played an important role in the spread of education among the peasants. Zemstvos, thanks to good wages, could hire teachers with special pedagogical education. When the opportunity arose in zemstvo schools, the range of subjects studied by children expanded, most often due to the inclusion of real knowledge. The zemstvo took care of the development of applied knowledge in schools. For this, craft classes were organized at some schools, nurseries and beekeepers were bred, agriculture was practiced, lower agricultural schools and practical farms were organized. Teachers expanding the official curriculum sought a comprehensive education for their students, as well as the use of new, more effective teaching methods. Zemsky schools could rightfully be considered educational institutions offering a high level of primary education.

In 1864, the "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" was approved, which proclaimed the principle of universal human education and extra-class schools. According to the charter, two types of gymnasiums are established: classical - with the teaching of Latin and Greek languages ​​and real - without the ancient languages, training in them was calculated for seven years. In a real gymnasium, in comparison with the classical one, exact and natural subjects were taught to a greater extent: mathematics, natural science, astronomy, physics, drawing. Provided for the organization of progymnasiums - incomplete secondary schools with a 4-year term of study, corresponding to the first four grades of the gymnasium. As a rule, they were opened in small county towns.

In 1863, a new university Charter was adopted, implying the relative independence of universities and approving the status of other higher educational institutions - the St. Petersburg Technological Institute, the Mining Institute, the Institute of Communications, the Petrovsko-Razumov Agricultural Academy, etc. The right to elect a rector was returned to the universities. vice-rectors, deans and professors, the development of scientific research was stimulated, the staff of the teaching staff increased.

In the 1870-1880s. after the unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II, educational reforms began to be reactionary. The new Charter of primary schools, adopted in 1874, provided for the strengthening of the control of ministerial inspectors in individual educational institutions. The government began to slow down the opening of rural and city schools. The creation of parish schools was encouraged. By the 1880s. in connection with the assassination of Alexander II, the reaction in school politics intensified. The position of 1874 was in effect unchanged until the revolution of 1917 and, according to N.A. Konstantinov, was a big brake on the development of primary education. The supervision of the clergy over the mindset and behavior of the folk teachers and the teaching spirit in primary schools was intensified.

Reactionary politics of the 1870s-1880s had a strong influence on the activities of zemstvos in the field of public education. In the last quarter of the XIX century. three times fewer zemstvo schools were opened than in the previous 10 years. At the same time, in these schools, the content of elementary education was significantly expanded; through explanatory reading, students were provided with elementary information on natural history, geography and Russian history. During this period, elementary public schools with a three-year course of study could no longer satisfy the needs of industry and agriculture, there was a need to organize elementary higher schools. In this regard, two-year public schools were created with a five-year term of study: in the first three years, education was considered the first class and corresponded to the course of a one-class public school; the fourth and fifth years were the second class of study, they taught Russian, arithmetic (fractions, progressions, triple rule, percentages), visual geometry, basic information on natural science, physics, geography and Russian history. Two-year public schools became dead-end educational institutions that did not provide an opportunity for the continuation of general education in secondary schools, since the curricula and programs of these schools did not have continuity. A higher level of education was expected in the primary urban schools.

Most of the county schools, created according to the Charter of 1828, were reorganized in the 1870s. to city schools. These schools had a six-year course of study, their goal was to provide children of non-noble origin with advanced primary education and some applied knowledge. The city schools taught the law of God, Russian language and literature, arithmetic, algebra, geography, history, natural science (information from botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology), drawing, drawing, singing. Urban schools were also dead-end schools, since they did not have continuity with secondary general education schools. At many two-year urban schools, various courses were organized: accounting, accounting, pedagogical, drawing, etc.

In 1870, by the "Regulations on women's gymnasiums and progymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education," women's schools of the first and second categories were transformed into women's gymnasiums and gymnasiums. From 1872 to 1876, higher courses for women were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, already in the 1880s. these courses were closed and reopened only at the beginning of the twentieth century. Until the 1917 revolution, higher education for women in Russian higher educational institutions was impossible.

In 1871, a new Charter of gymnasiums was issued, according to which all male gymnasiums were transformed into classical ones. Education in them was built around humanitarian subjects - ancient languages, literature, grammar, etc. In 1872, the Charter of real schools - secondary schools with a 6-7-year term of study was issued. In the last grades of the school, specialized training in the commercial, mechanical-technical or general departments was supposed. In 1888 real schools with the liquidation of professionally oriented departments became general educational institutions.

The new Charter of universities, adopted in 1884, significantly reduced the rights to self-government of higher education, abolished various informal associations and communities, and placed the activities of the teaching staff under the control of the Ministry of Public Education.

Thus, by the end of the XIX century. As a result of the reforms carried out by the state in the field of education, a national state system of public education was created, the number of schools and the number of students increased significantly. The prerequisites have emerged for the implementation of the idea of ​​universal primary education.

2. Development of domestic pedagogical thought in the XIX century. In the XIX century. there was a process of formation of domestic pedagogical science, the formation of various pedagogical directions and theories. Significant during this period was the contribution of public thought to the development of educational ideas.

Pedagogical activities of the famous Russian surgeon, professor of medicine Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov(1810-1881) was not limited to teaching in higher education. In the 1850s. he was appointed a trustee of the Odessa and then Kiev educational districts. N.I. In his pedagogical writings, Pirogov put forward the idea of ​​upbringing education, saw the goal of upbringing in preparing a highly moral person with a broad intellectual outlook for life, opposed early specialization in teaching children and insisted on initial general educational training. The scientist expressed the idea of ​​the need to create a network of educational institutions in Russia for training women. Among the methods of educational influence, the teacher singled out example, persuasion, encouragement, punishment, had a negative attitude towards corporal punishment that existed in contemporary schools. N.I. Pirogov advocated the expansion of the network of primary schools, supported the autonomy of universities, and developed issues of teaching methods in higher education.

Educator and educator Nikolay Fedorovich Bunakov(1837-1904) was a theorist and practitioner of the folk school, created a number of textbooks for primary schools. He saw the main task of primary school education in the harmonious development of the physical, mental and moral forces of children. For this, in his opinion, it is necessary to strengthen the real component of the content of children's education.

Educator, public figure, teacher Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin(1826-1888) created works on the history of pedagogy and education: "Development of pedagogical ideas in Russia in the 19th century." historical destinies ". In raising a child, he called for focusing on the high ideals and true morality inherent in the Russian people, believed that in the practice of teaching, the influence of Western methods is strong and this negatively affects the teaching of Russian history, native language and literature. One of the prominent places in the theoretical and practical heritage of the teacher is occupied by the issue of women's education.

According to V.Ya. Stoyunin, his contemporary family lacks an educated and morally pure mother who could understand the new, better aspirations of her children. “From the very first days, the Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium in St. Petersburg discovered how strong the need for poor families was to educate their daughters on an equal basis with their sons. It was the first appeal of all urban estates to the education of women and future mothers of families, and, consequently, to the moral elevation of the Russian family, without which the improvement of public morality could not be expected, ”the teacher wrote about the importance of education for women. With the abolition of serfdom, it would seem, there should have been hopes for the resumption of spiritual development in family relations, and the improvement of society as a whole. It was at that time that V.Ya. Stoyunin wrote about the possibility, under new conditions, of the degeneration of the Russian family, noting that upbringing should not be one-sided, closed only within the framework of the family. He ardently defended the closest connection of the family with the school, with the teacher, experience, observations, the conclusions of which "would bring life into the family-educational business, so that it was not a soulless, machine, but alive and reasonable business."

Educator Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov(1856-1919) advocated the need to create a truly Russian national school based on the cultural traditions of the people. At the same time, he was far from a narrowly national interpretation of the role of the school and defended the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of the universal, national and individual in the formation of the personality.

Biologist, public figure, teacher and educator Sergey Alexandrovich Rachinsky(1833-1902) created a religious and pedagogical concept of a rural folk school based on deeply national traditions of Orthodox spirituality. At the same time, Rachinsky's religiosity did not contradict his scientific research. S.A. Rachinsky believed that moral education is a priority for the Russian people, therefore, in a rural school, it is necessary to lay the foundations of a holistic and harmonious worldview based on the values ​​of Christianity and humanism. The teacher considered it unacceptable to give too much information in a rural school; in his opinion, the communication of practical knowledge to schoolchildren should become the center of learning.

Similar information.

In the first half of the 19th century, the educational system and pedagogical thought were formed, designed to meet the new economic and spiritual needs of civil society. Thanks to university education, an intellectual elite has formed, which has made a significant contribution to the development of pedagogical thought in Russia.

In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was organized. Its first minister was P.V. Zavadovsky, who headed the Commission for the Establishment of Schools under Catherine II. During 1802-1804. there was a reform of public education. The reorganization of the national education system began with the adoption in 1803 of the "Preliminary Rules of Public Education" and in 1804 the "Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinated to Universities." The charter provided for the transformation of the main and small public schools. The new system provided for four levels of education:

Universities (higher level)

Gymnasiums (middle level)

County schools (intermediate level)

· Parish schools (elementary level).

Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were headed by the trustees of the educational districts.

Duties of the trustee - opening a university or transforming an existing one on new foundations, managing educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.

Rector of the University - was elected by the professors at the general meeting and was subordinate to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.

The directors of the gymnasiums (in each provincial town), in addition to their leadership, managed all the schools in the given province. Superintendents of district schools were subordinate to them; the latter were in charge of all parish schools.

Thus, the head of the higher-level school was the administrator of the lower-level schools. As a result of this, the administration of education was created from specialists who knew the business.

The gymnasium gave a completed secondary education and prepared for entering the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. There was no native language and national literature, the Law of God.

County schools - prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. The curriculum contained many subjects - from the Law of God to drawing (sacred history, reading a book about the positions of man and citizen, geography, history, etc.).

The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. All this was unrealistic.

Teachers were required to use only recommended textbooks.

Parish schools - could be opened in provincial, district towns and villages at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for study at the district school and to give children general education knowledge (both boys and girls could study). Subjects of study: The law of God and moralizing, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.

There had to be continuity between the steps. Six districts were created, each of which was supposed to have a university and adjoining secondary educational institutions. Education in parish schools was designed for one year, and in district schools for two years. The program of the latter included 15 academic disciplines: grammar of the Russian language, geography, history, arithmetic, geometry, physics, natural science, the beginning of technology, etc. The course of gymnasium education was four years. The program included Latin, geography, history, statistics, logic, poetry, Russian literature, mathematics, zoology, mineralogy, commerce, technology, etc. There was no theology and the Russian language in the program.

In 1808, the Law of God was introduced in the gymnasiums. Private educational institutions emerged: Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa; Yaroslavl Lyceum; The Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow, etc. The first object of reforms was the higher school. New universities appear: Kharkov, Kazan, Petersburg.

The transformation of the former gymnasiums, the main public schools into a new type of gymnasium, and the small public schools into county schools took almost two decades. The documents confirmed the advanced direction of secular education, the continuity of the training system, the humanistic tasks of education:

· "Accustoming" students to hard work;

• excitement in students of the hunt for learning;

· Education of honesty and good behavior, correction of "bad" inclinations.

The Decembrists played a significant role in the formation of private primary educational institutions. Decembrists F.P. Glinka, F.N. Tolstoy, S.P. Trubetskoy and others united in the Free Society of institutions of schools according to the method of mutual learning (developed by the English teachers A. Bell and J. Lancaster). For four years (1818 - 1822) four such schools were opened in St. Petersburg. At the same time, soldiers' schools for teaching literacy were established.

Many nobles preferred to educate their children in private boarding schools, where foreigners usually carried out their upbringing. In many boarding houses, training was extremely unsatisfactory. The role of private boarding education was weakened by the establishment of Lyceums - public closed educational institutions for the nobility.

A special role in their creation, in particular in the organization of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, was played by the statesman M.M. Speransky. Lyceum students received an education equivalent to a university one. In the noble environment, home education still prevailed, although the results of such education became more and more unacceptable.

Prince Alexander Nikolaevich Golitsin enjoyed considerable influence in determining school policy. In December 1812, he became the first head of the Russian Bible Society, which founded several elementary schools for the poor, modeled on the schools of J. Lancaster (England). In 1816 A.N. Golitsin headed the Ministry of Education. A manifesto was issued on the establishment of the Ministry of Public Education and Spiritual Affairs, which, in fact, meant a blow to secular education. Universities were to train teachers of theology for secondary schools. The minister's associate M.L. Magnitsky prepared instructions for universities, where it was proved that the truths based on one reason: "are only selfishness and hidden pride." Under the Minister of Education A.S. Shishkov, there was a return to national Orthodoxy. True enlightenment, in his opinion, consists in the fear of God. Shishkov pursued the goal of limiting scientific education.

During the reign of Nicholas I, there were attempts to develop school policies aimed at strengthening social stability. In 1828, Count Lieven was appointed minister of education, under which a new Charter on primary and secondary schools was adopted (1828).

The charter confirmed the existing four-stage education system, and proclaimed the principle that each class has its own level of education:

1. Parish schools for the lower classes

2. County schools for children of merchants, artisans, and other urban residents

3. Grammar schools for officials and children of nobles.

The type of education had to correspond to the social status and future of the student. School life took place under the strict supervision of the chief and the police. For misconduct, penalties were imposed: rods, exile as a soldier, expulsion from school, and for teachers - dismissal from service, arrest.

The children of serfs and courtyards were not allowed into the university: they could study in parish and county schools, various technical and industrial schools. Lieven failed to fulfill the strategic objectives of the protective school policy.

Since 1830, a new social group has been formed - raznochintsy, who become carriers of the ideas of reorganizing society (intelligentsia). In the years 1830-1850. in the field of education, two main development trends have been identified:

1. manifestation of official policy in the style of authoritarianism, nationalism.

2. the democratic aspirations of society.

In 1833 he was replaced by S.S. Uvarov (Minister of Education until 1849). Since 1818, Uvarov headed the Academy of Sciences. He participated in the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute into a university. Uvarov's formula was of a conservative protective nature. The first two principles are:

Orthodoxy

Autocracy

corresponded to the idea of ​​statehood of Russian politics, and the principle:

Nationalities

corresponded to the idea of ​​national revival.

For the first time, the government asked the question, is it possible to combine the worldwide school experience with the traditions of national life? The government was confident in its right to lead the school. The idea of ​​freedom of enlightenment and education was alien to him. That is why, under Uvarov, documents appeared like the university charter (1835), which strengthened the sole authority of the district trustees and curtailed the autonomy of universities, as well as a decree on depriving universities of the right to elect a rector (1849). The instruction of S.S. Uvarov was reactionary. aimed at making it difficult for low-income raznochinets to enter universities by increasing tuition fees. But, despite this, special closed educational institutions for the nobility are developing. Gymnasiums developed as schools of classical education. In 1849, natural science was introduced, special importance was given to the Greek and Latin languages. Other ministries were also involved in the organization of secondary education. The Ministry of Finance in 1839 opened several real classes in the gymnasiums of Tula, Kursk, Riga, etc. The Ministry of Justice organized gymnasium courses in jurisprudence in Vilna, Voronezh, Moscow, Smolensk. The Ministry of State Property opens several schools for peasants.

In 1848 - 1852. three types of gymnasiums were created:

· With two ancient languages

· With training in natural science, jurisprudence

· With training in jurisprudence.

The role of private educational institutions under the control of the Ministry of Education is growing. Teachers in these schools received the same rights, status, wage subsidies and pensions as public school teachers. Universities have become important centers of educational science. Departments of pedagogy appeared (Moscow University in 1851). Sergei Semenovich Uvarov preserved the scheme of training Russian professors at universities in Western Europe.

In the first half of 1800. the minds of the teachers were occupied with the idea of ​​the nationality of education and training. In a significant part of educated circles, upbringing and education were viewed as conditions for the mental, moral formation of civil society.

So M.M. Speransky, a supporter of universal education, proceeded from the fact that rule on a legal basis is possible only in an enlightened country. The theory of "official nationality" understood by nationality the primordial infallibility of the Russian people; the correctness of his faith; his inner strength, manifested in the protection of the sovereign and the fatherland in difficult times.

In the mid 1800s. a sharp controversy unfolded between the Westerners and the Slavophiles on the issues of education and upbringing.

VG Belinsky, AI Herzen, NP Ogarev, VF Odoevsky and others warmly welcomed the Western European education, were indignant at the estate-serf traditions of Russia in education and training. They defended the rights of the individual to self-realization. The Slavophils were also not united in their views. They proceeded from the conviction of the originality of the historical path of the Russian people. The Slavophiles considered the basis of folk, national education:

Religiosity

Love for neighbor

Morality

Prominent ideologists of Slavophilism in education were: I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1865), A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), S.P. Shevyrev (1806-1864).