Pupil 8 "B" grade

Osipov Artur

Head: Egorova N.V.

1.	Introduction ………………………………………………… ..….….…	page 3
2.	Why do we need measurements …………………… ... ……… .. ………….	page 4
3.	First measures of length …………………………………… ... ……… ..	page 5
4.	Ancient measures of length in Russia …………………… .. ………… ...	page 7
5.	Ancient measures of length in different countries …………… ...…. ……	page 16
6.	Birth of the metric system of measures ……………………… ..… ...	page 20
7.	Archive meter …………………………………… .. …………… ...	page 22
8.	Metric system of measures in Russia …………………………… ....	page 23
9.	The use of ancient measures in our time …… ... ……… ..… ..	page 24
10.	Interesting research ……………………………………… ...	page 26
11.	Conclusion……………………………..………………………….	page 28
12.	Bibliography………...…………...………………...……….	page 29

Introduction

People constantly have to measure various quantities: mass, temperature, length, and much more. Probably everyone has a ruler and a measuring tape at home. They are needed in order to measure lengths. There are other measuring devices in every house: a clock by which they know the time, a thermometer, which everyone glances at when going outside, an electricity meter, by which they find out how much to pay for it at the end of the month, and much more.

And how many measuring instruments are on the dashboard of the car! There is a speedometer, by which the driver finds out at what speed he is driving, and instruments that show how much gasoline is in the tank, and a counter of kilometers traveled by the car, etc. In the store in front of the sellers are scales on which they weigh the products. But most of the measuring instruments are used in factories and factories. Modern aircraft are also full of measuring instruments. With their help, the pilot drives the car correctly, takes off and lands correctly, checks if the aircraft wings are not iced up. And many many others.

Nowadays, every civilized person can take measurements, for example, find out the size of a printed sheet. At the same time, the size of the measurement of the same sheet will be the same for a Russian, and for a Frenchman, and for an Italian. Since we all use one system of measures of length - metric.

In this work, we will consider the history of the development of the system of measuring measures both in our country and around the world, what path humanity went through until the well-known meter appeared in its life. Let's consider all the variety of measures of length that existed in antiquity, we will study the relationship between them and the metric system of measures that exists in our time. We learn that the ruler previously owned by Peter I served as a model of the measure of length in determining the size of the arshin and fathom. According to this semi-arshin measure, samples of measures of length were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom. We will also find out how and what ancient measures of length are used in our time. Let's find out the use of ancient measures of length in literature and history. We will learn how to translate old measures of length into modern ones and vice versa.

Why are measurements needed

Measurement is one of the most important things in modern life. But it was not always so. Primitive man did not have much need for measurements. Later people began to live in large groups. The exchange of goods began, which later passed into trade, the first states arose. Then there was a need for measurements. The royal scribes had to know what the area of ​​the field was for each peasant. This determined how much grain he should give to the king. It was necessary to measure the yield from each field, and when selling flaxseed oil, wine and other liquids, it was necessary to know the volume of goods sold. When they began to build the ships, it was necessary to outline the correct dimensions in advance, otherwise the ship would have sunk. And, of course, the ancient builders of pyramids, palaces and temples, which still amaze us with their proportionality and beauty, could not do without measurements.

When measuring any quantity, first of all, you need to select the units of measurement. Any measurements are made in some units: length is measured in units of length, weight in units of weight, time in units of time, etc. Throughout its history, mankind has come up with a huge number of all kinds of units, and each nation had its own measures.

The rulers of different countries liked to establish their own measures, often associated with their own person. For example, there are several versions of the origin of the name for the size of the yard. The large measure of length, called the yard, was introduced by the English king Edgar and was equal to the distance from the tip of his majesty's nose to the tip of the middle finger of his outstretched hand. As soon as the monarch was replaced, the yard became different - lengthened, since the new king was of a larger constitution than his predecessor. Then, on the next change of king, the yard became shorter again.

Such frequent changes in the unit of length caused incredible confusion. King Henry I legalized the permanent yard and ordered the production of a standard from elm. According to another legend, the length of the sword of Henry I was the prototype of the length of the yard.

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of various sizes used in different countries. A variety of measures made trade difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country. The question of choosing standards from a variety of existing ones, both domestic and overseas, turned out to be difficult.

First measures of length

In the explanatory dictionary of V. Dahl, the following definition is given: “Measure is a way of determining the quantity by the adopted unit. A linear, linear measure is used to indicate distances or the size of lines. "

The first units for measuring lengths were not very accurate. For example, distances were measured steps ... It is a natural and oldest measure of length. Of course, the size of the step is different for different people, but they took some average value.

However, for measuring large distances, the step was too small a unit, therefore, in ancient times, other measures were used, which were based on the same step.

For example, the ancient Roman mile was equal to 1000 steps. Today the mile is used mainly in the maritime business. In many Mediterranean countries in the 1st millennium BC, the measure of length was taken stages. This is the distance that a person walks at a calm pace during the period of time from the appearance of the first ray of the sun when it rises to the appearance of a full solar disk above the horizon. If this sun goes out for about two minutes, then during this time a person, at an average walking speed, walks about two hundred meters.

"... directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, at the northern end of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (seven stadia)" (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. .Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary).

Long distances were also measured transitions or days movement. In Jack London's story "White Silence," an Indian, when asked how much is left to travel, replies: "You drive 10 dreams, 20 dreams, 40 dreams" (that is, days).

Estonian sailors measured the distance tubes. So they called the path traveled by the ship at normal speed during the time a pipe full of tobacco was smoked. In Spain, the same measure of distance was used cigar, and in Japan - horse shoe. This was the name of the path traversed by a horse until the straw sole tied to its feet wears out, replacing the horseshoe in this country.

In the old days, many units of length were associated with weapons. Marine League - a measure equal to the range of a cannon shot, which can be fired at the ship:

1 naval league = 5560 m

In India dhanush - a measure equal to the distance between the ends of the bow:

1 dhanush = 183 cm

In persia neise Is a measure equal to the distance traveled by a spear thrown by a warrior:

1 neise = 4 ÷ 5 m

In China yin , among the ancient Slavs shootout - a measure equal to the distance traveled by an arrow fired from a bow:

1 yin = 32 m

Many peoples used the measure of distance arrow , that is, the flight range of the arrow. But this measure depends on the strength of the shooter. Even in the Greek poem "The Odyssey" it is said that Odysseus easily fired with a bow that no one else could even bend.

Ancient measures of length in Russia

Since antiquity, man has always been the measure of length and weight. How far will he stretch his hand, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

The first units of length in Russia, as in other countries, were associated with the size of parts of the human body, with the length of his steps. A person always carried many units of length with him and could use them in any conditions.

The Russian people have created their own system of measures. Monuments of the 10th century speak not only of the existence of a system of measures in Kievan Rus, but also of state supervision over their correctness. This supervision was entrusted to the clergy. One of the statutes of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich says: "... it has been established from time immemorial to eat and it has been entrusted to eat the bishops of the city and everywhere all sorts of measures and scales and scales ... watch without filth, neither multiply, nor diminish ..." (... has long been established and the bishops were instructed to observe the correctness of the measures ... not to allow them to be diminished or increased ...).

The oldest measures of length in Russia are the cubit and the fathom. We do not know the exact initial length of either measure. A certain Englishman who traveled through Russia in 1554 testifies that a Russian cubit was equal to half an English yard. According to the "Trade Book", compiled for Russian merchants at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, three cubits were equal to two arshins.

Elbow- the oldest measure of length used by many peoples of the world. This is the distance from the end of the extended middle finger or clenched fist to the elbow. This unit of length was used by many peoples, but, of course, under different names: "ammatu" in Babylon, "nemech" in Egypt, "infantry" in Greece, "cubitus" in Rome. Its length ranged from 38 cm to 54 cm, or 8-16 vershoks.

For the first time, the elbow as a measure of length is mentioned in the "Russian Truth" by Yaroslav the Wise: "The bridge builder, who has paved the bridge, take from the case, from ten nogat lakotas". The value of the Old Russian cubit was 10.25 ÷ 10.5 vershoks, which was approximately 46-48 cm. These data were obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem temple made by abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple in the main the temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (17th century). It has been found as a measure of length in Russia since the 16th century. The elbow was widely used in commerce as a particularly convenient measure. The merchants measured the fabrics sold with their elbows, winding them around the arm; with their elbows they measured the height of the tree cut down to build a house, etc.

Along with the elbow, other units were also used to measure lengths. If you bring your hands together on your chest, then the ends of the fingers come together. This means that the elbow is equal to a quarter of the distance between the ends of the fingers of the apart hands. This distance has been used to measure lengths in many countries.

In Russia they called him fathom ... The first mention of the fathom is found in the chronicle of the 11th century, compiled by the Kiev monk Nestor. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach), that is, how much you could reach with your hand. To determine the meaning of the Old Russian fathom, a large role was played by the find of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: "In the summer of 6576 (1068) indicta 6 days, Gleb the prince measured ... 10,000 and 4000 fathoms". From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, the value of fathoms 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of churches and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value.

Sazhen was widely used in measuring distances, planning and building various structures, in shipbuilding, in land surveying and cartographic work. So in Moscow and in other large cities, back in the 16th century, the regulated width of streets and lanes was measured: "Under the Tsar Tsar and Grand Duke Fyodor Ioannovich of all Russia, to protect from fires, large streets were made, twelve fathoms wide, and the alleys were very fathoms." (six). The actual length of streets or their paved parts was also expressed in fathoms. For example, the total length of log and plank pavements in Moscow in 1646 was 2017 fathoms, which was more than 4 kilometers.

The exact fathom values ​​were reproduced using the exemplary measures stored in the orders. Mention is made of "a city fathom, which is in the Pushkarsky Prikaz", "an iron fathom of three arshins without a quarter", "two iron fathoms, one city and pavement Moscow measure, and the other - a yard shop in Moscow measure". On the measures, half-sazhen, arshin, fourth and eighth shares were applied. Along with sage rulers, measuring ropes and wooden folds were used, which initially did not have a uniform fixed length. For measuring distances between cities in versts, it turned out to be the most convenient and firmly established in practice a measuring rope of 100 fathoms.

By a decree on November 7, 1835, the value of the fathom was additionally legalized as a measure equal to 7 English feet, and the uniform compulsory samples (standards) of this basic measure of length created by the commission of 1827 were approved. Two sazhen standards were made - the main one, consisting of six platinum and six brass strips, placed in the grooves of two brass cylinders, and a working one, in the form of an iron strip.

Fathom = 2.1336 meters

According to historians and architects, there were a large number of different fathoms. They had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Great fathom ≈ 244.0 cm; urban fathom ≈ 284.8 cm; Greek fathom ≈ 230.4 cm; breech (measured, three-arshin) fathom ≈ 217.6 cm; masonry fathom ≈ 159.7 cm; small fathom ≈ 142.4 cm; fathom = 182.88 cm; folk fathom ≈ 176.0 cm; simple fathom ≈ 150.8 cm; fathom without hair ≈ 197.2 cm; pipe fathom ≈ 187 cm; royal fathom ≈ 197.4 cm; church fathoms ≈ 186.4 cm; four-arshin fathom = 284.48 cm.

Also known: fathom arshin, coastal, large, sovereign, courtyard, surveyor, Cossack, rotary, kosovaya, peasant, shop, measured (breech), pavement, small, new, foot, printed, scribe, full, simple, manual, sedate , step, customs, index, walking, human, etc.

Fly fathom- the distance between the ends of the fingers of outstretched hands, which are spread apart for a full swing of the hands:

Swing fathom = 1.76 meters

Oblique fathom- the distance from the toe of the left leg to the end of the middle finger of the right hand raised upward:

Oblique fathom = 2.48 meters

Times changed, some measures disappeared, others appeared. Replaced the elbow arshin - the name comes from the Persian word "arsh" - cubit. This is the length of the entire extended arm from the shoulder joint to the terminal phalanx of the middle finger.

But in different provinces of Russia there were their own units of length, therefore, when merchants sold their goods, as a rule, they measured it with their own yardstick, while deceiving buyers. To eliminate confusion, the state arshin was introduced, i.e. the standard of an arshin, which is a wooden ruler, at the ends of which metal tips with the state mark were attached.

By 1807, three yardsticks of the yardstick were made, which were kept in St. Petersburg (crystal, steel and copper). The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper, tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - a standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). The state branded arshin at the price of 1 ruble in silver was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of the old arshin templates. In 1899, it was adopted in Russia as the main measure of length.

Arshin = 71.12 cm

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with vershok in various industries. In the "Descriptive Books" of the Armory of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: "... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow business, three arshins half a dozen vershok (10.5 vershok) long ... Large cast iron squeak, Lev iron, with belts, length three arshins three chety with a half-top. "

There are various versions of the origin of the yardstick. Perhaps, initially, the arshin denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on a plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length and distance (fathom, verst). The root "ar" in the word arshin in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring languages) means "earth", "surface of the earth", and indicates that this measure could be used to determine the length of the path traveled on foot.

There was another name for this measure - step. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (in small fathoms: one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three ...), or in threes (official fathoms: one-two-three - one, time -two-three - two ...). And when measuring in steps of small distances, step-by-step counting was used.

Step - average length of a human stride. One of the oldest measures of length. Preserved information about the use of the step to determine the distance between cities in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Egypt, Persia. Step as a measure of length is still used today. There is even a special device, a pedometer, similar to a pocket watch, which automatically counts the number of steps a person has taken.

Step = 71 cm

The steps measured the distance at which the opponents had to converge during the duel. So, from a distance of 10 steps, which is 7.1 meters on the Black River near St. Petersburg, on January 27, 1837 in a duel, Dantes shot at A.S. Pushkin and mortally wounded him. In 1841, on July 15, not far from Pyatigorsk, Martynov fired his fatal shot from a distance of 15 steps or 10.65 meters and killed M.Yu. Lermontov.

In later times, a measure of distance was established verst ... In ancient monuments, a verst is called field and sometimes equates to 750 fathoms. This word was originally called the distance traveled from one plow turn to another during plowing. For a long time, the two names were used in parallel, as synonyms. There are references to a verst in written sources of the 11th century. In the 15th century manuscripts there is an entry: "the field of plantings 7 hundred and 50" (750 sazhens long). This can be explained by the existence of a shorter fathom in antiquity. Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1000 fathoms were counted in one verst. Finally, a verst equal to 500 sazhens was established only in the 18th century. In modern terms, a verst is equal to: 213.36 x 500 = 1066.8 meters

Verst = 1.07 km

Boundary verst existed in Russia until the 18th century to determine the distance between settlements and for land surveying (from the word border - the border of land holdings in the form of a narrow strip). The length of such a verst is 1000 fathoms, or:

Boundary verst = 2.13 km

Mile(from the Latin word "mille" - a thousand steps) - Russian measure of length. Used as a unit for measuring long distances, equal to seven versts, or:

Mile = 7,468 km

Today, the mile, as a measure of length, is used mainly in the maritime business.

International Nautical Mile = 1,852 km

For small measures of length, a span was used from time immemorial in Russia. In our ancestors, the word span meant a hand. Span – the distance between the ends of the outstretched thumb and forefinger.

Span = 17.78 cm

Since the 17th century, a length equal to a span was called differently - a quarter. Quarter - the distance between the ends of the apart big and middle fingers

Quarter = 18 ÷ 19 cm

Big span- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger.

Large span = 22 ÷ 23 cm

Span with somersault- a span with an increase in two joints of the index finger.

Span with somersault = 27 ÷ 31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershok). Icon of St. George the Great deeds in three spans (in 1arshin) ”.

From a quarter it was visually easy to get smaller shares - two inches (1/2 inch) or an inch (1/4 inch). Vershok - the top of the index finger, more precisely, the two upper joints of this finger. The name "vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century, there are also shares of the top - half-top and quarter-top. When determining the height of a person or an animal, the count was carried out after two yards (mandatory for a normal adult). If it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

Growth in vershoks
Height in meters	1,47	1,56	1,65	1,73	1,82	1,87	2,09

Top = 4.45 cm

To measure smaller distances, we used Palm - the width of the hand. And finger - the old name for the index finger, which is approximately 2 cm wide.

Palm = 8.05 cm;

Finger = 2 cm

Line- the width of the wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm. This measure was used to measure the diameter of the throat in the glass portion of the lamp. This unit also denotes the caliber, i.e. diameter of the bore in the barrel of the firearm. The largest diameter of a bullet or projectile is also expressed in lines or in millimeters. Hence the name "three-line rifle" for a 7.62 mm rifle (2.54 x 3 = 7.62). This rifle of the Mosin system has been in service with the Russian army since the end of the 19th century. After some modernization, it was used in the Soviet Army (along with automatic weapons) during the Great Patriotic War.

Along with anthropological ones, approximate household measures were used in ancient Russia. They were inaccurate and not materially reproducible. Shooting - this is the distance that the arrow fired from the bow flew, which was 60 ÷ 70 meters. Throwing a stone - the distance at which a stone could be thrown, day - distance traveled per day. When organizing horse mail, such a kind of travel measure as cut out - the distance between the points at which the horses were harnessed when transporting government mail.

During the period of feudal fragmentation of Russia and in the era of the Tatar-Mongol yoke (XIII - first half of the XV century), they continued to use the same measures of length, the system of which had developed in Kievan Rus: a verst, fathom, elbow, span. The isolation of the principalities, the disruption of contacts due to the arrival of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, the lack of "legal" measures increased the use of local, anthropological and domestic measures. For example, dragging or rut - the distance that a mower or a plowman can travel without stopping.

In the era of the fragmentation of Russia, there was no single system of measures. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow took place. With the emergence and growth of national trade and with the establishment of fees for the treasury from the entire population of the united country, the question arises of a single system of measures for the entire state.

In the 18th century, the measures were specified. Since the second half of the 18th century, the measure of vershoks, due to the reduction of the arshin and fathom to a multiple of English measures, was replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only an inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of the lamp glasses and the calibers of the guns (for example, ten- or twenty-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the size of the gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts. In construction and engineering, the division of the fathom into 100 parts was widely used.

Peter I, by decree, established the equality of three-arshin fathoms to seven English feet. The former Russian system of measures of length was supplemented with new measures. In connection with the development of trade, there is a need to establish clear correspondences between different measures. To facilitate the calculations, tables of measures and ratios between Russian and foreign measures were published. In 1835, Russian measures were brought into a definite system. She looked like this:

1 SZHEN = 3 ARSHINAM = 12 SPANDS =

48 TOPS = 7 FEET = 84 INCHES

Improved: website

Units of measurement in Russia. From the annals of the system of measures.

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of various sizes used in different countries. A variety of measures made trade difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, systems of measures uniform for the whole country were determined. In the XVIII century. In connection with the economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, in Russia the question arose of the accuracy of measurements, the creation of standards, on the basis of which it would be possible to organize a verification business ("metrology").

The question of choosing standards from a variety of existing ones (both domestic and "overseas") turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon receipt, and then repeatedly outweighed at mints; the weight was different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. there was an opinion that the scales are more accurate in St. Petersburg customs. It was decided to make exemplary scales from those customs scales, place them at the Senate and check them using them.

The ruler previously owned by Peter I served as an example of the measure of length in determining the size of the arshin and fathom. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. According to this semi-arshin measure, samples of measures of length were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, a quadruple of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, which was used to verify the measures of bulk solids in other cities.

A bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow was taken as the basis for the liquid measures.

In 1736, the Senate adopted a decision on the formation of the Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, developed a project for organizing a verification business in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the system of the Russian money account was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish the relationship between the various units of measurement using measures of length. Determined the volume of the bucket and the four. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic inches, and the four-piece - 286.421 cubic inches. The result of the Commission's work was the "Regulations ..."

For an arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission in 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to make “arshins throughout the Russian state”. In accordance with the volume of the four, adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the XVIII century. fours, half-eight and octins were made.

Since the second half of the 18th century, the vershok subdivisions, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and fathom to a multiple of English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only an inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the size of the gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, the division of the fathom into 100 parts was widely used. The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

Under Paul I, a decree of April 29, 1797 on the "Establishment of correct weights, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire" began a lot of work to streamline measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The 1797 decree was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree dealt with four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, measures of weight, measures of liquid and bulk solids. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures were to be replaced, for which it was supposed to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three yardsticks of the yardstick were made (kept in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshin - 28 English feet. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It is interesting that before that, the saying: "Measure by your yardstick" - literally corresponded to reality. With an yardstick, the sellers measured the length of the fabric - by a brace from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - a standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). The state branded arshin, at the cost of 1 ruble in silver, was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous removal of the old arshin templates.

The decree of 1835 determined the ratio of Russian measures to British ones:

• Fathom = 7 feet.
• Arshin = 28 inches.

A number of units of measurement (subdivisions of versts) are abolished, and new measures of length come into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Old Russian Measures of length.

The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

Measures of length (used in Russia after the "Decree" of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

• 1 arshin = 4 quarters (span) = 16 vershoks = 28 inches = 71.12 cm (divisions in vershoks were usually applied per arshin).
• 1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers.
• 1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters.
• Slanting fathom = 2.48 m.
• Swing fathom = 1.76 m.
• 1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm).
• 1 foot = 1/7 fathoms = 12 inches = 30.479 cm.
• 1 quarter<четверть аршина>(span, small span, span, span, span, span) = 4 vershok = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov). A synonym for "quarters" is "chet".
• A large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the elongated large and middle (or little finger) fingers.
• "Span with somersault" is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.
• 1 inch = 4 noktya (in width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 inch = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
  - an old Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).
• 1 finger ~ 2 cm.

An ancient Russian measure of length, equal, in modern terms, 0.7112 m. Arshin was also called a measuring ruler, on which, usually, divisions in vershoks were applied.

There are various versions of the origin of the yardstick. Perhaps, initially, "arshin" denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on a plain, at an average pace) and was the basic value for other large measures of determining length and distance (fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word arshin - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring languages) means "EARTH", the surface of the earth, and indicates that this measure could be used to determine the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - Step... In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult ("small fathoms"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three ...), or in threes ("official fathoms"; one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two ...), and when measuring in steps of small distances, step-by-step counting was used. In the future, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Russia - " span"(from the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently -" a quarter of an arshin "," a quarter "," a couple "), from which, by sight, it was easy to get smaller shares - two inches (1/2 inch) or an inch (1/4 span).

Merchants selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their yardstick (ruler) or in a quick way - measuring "from the shoulder." To exclude measurement, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the "state arshin", which is a wooden ruler, at the ends of which metal tips with the state stamp were riveted.

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with vershok in various industries. In the "Descriptive Books" of the armory of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: "... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow business, three arshins half a dozen vershok (10.5 vershok) long ... Large cast-iron squeak, The lion is iron, with belts, the length is three arshins, three rods with a half-top. The ancient Russian measure "elbow" was still used in everyday life to measure cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equal to two arshins. A span as an ancient measure the length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed, due to the agreement with a quarter of an arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use.

Step - the average length of a human stride = 71 cm. One of the most ancient measures of length.

A span (pyadnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length. The name span comes from the Old Russian word "passt", that is. wrist.

• Small span(they said - "span"; from the 17th century it was called - "quarter") - the distance between the ends of the apart thumb and forefinger (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
• Big span- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
• Span with somersault("a span with a somersault", according to Dal - "a span with a somersault") - an span with an increase in two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm.

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershok). Icon of St. George the Great deeds in three spans (in 1arshin) "

Verst is an old Russian travel measure (its earlier name was "" field ""). This word was originally called the distance traveled from one plow turn to another during plowing. For a long time, the two names were used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known references in written sources of the 11th century. In the manuscripts of the 15th century. there is a record: "field of plantings 7 and 50" (length 750 sazhens). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1,000 fathoms were counted 1 verst. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m. "Verstoy" was also called a verst post on the road.

Rostov region, Aksai. A milestone at the former post station. 2004. (photo from the site: vladsc.narod.ru)

The size of a mile has repeatedly changed depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of fathoms. The Code of 1649 established a "boundary verst" of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it began to be used and " travel mile"500 sazhens (" five hundred verst ").

Boundary verst is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and for measuring distances between settlements.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less often, mainly for measuring distance in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the XVIII century. boundary versts are gradually being replaced by track versts, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a mile "track", equal to 500 yards.

- one of the most common measures of length in Russia. There were more than ten fathoms of various purposes (and, accordingly, size).

"Fly fathom"- the distance between the ends of the fingers of the widely spaced hands of an adult man." Oblique fathoms"- the longest: the distance from the toe of the left leg to the end of the middle toe of the right hand raised upward. Used in the phrase:" he has a slanting fathom in his shoulders "(meaning a hero, a giant) This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017.

Name fathom comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as you could reach with your hand. To determine the meaning of the Old Russian fathom, a large role was played by the find of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: "In the summer of 6576 (1068) indicta 6 days, Gleb the prince measured ... 10,000 and 4000 fathoms". From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, the value of fathoms 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of churches and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were planted measuring ropes and wooden "folds" that were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms:

• city ​​or Oblique fathom- 284.8 cm,
• untitled - 258.4 cm,
• great - 244.0 cm,
• Greek - 230.4 cm,
• breech - 217.6 cm,
• royal - 197.4 cm,
• church - 186.4 cm,
• folk or Fly fathom- 176.0 cm,
• masonry - 159.7 cm,
• simple - 150.8 cm,
• small - 142.4 cm
• and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as a courtyard, pavement.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

Elbow - equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - "the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger"). The value of this most ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century it has been gradually replaced by the yardstick and in the 19th century it is almost never used.

Elbow- a primordial Old Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit at 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra river (XVII century). The elbow was widely used in commerce as a particularly convenient measure. In retail trade, canvas, cloth, linen - elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade - linen, woolen cloth, etc., came in the form of large cuts - "sets", the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade, these measures had a specific meaning).

Vershok was equal to 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Top" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. there are also shares of the top - half-tops and quarter-tops.

When determining the height of a person or animal, the count was carried out after two arshins (obligatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

Growth in Vershki	1	3	5	7	9	10	15
Height in meters	1,47	1,56	1,65	1,73	1,82	1,87	2,09

For humans, two methods were used to fully express growth:

• a combination of "growth *** elbows, *** spans".
• combination "growth *** arshin, *** vershok".
• from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches".
• For domestic small animals used - "height *** vershoks".
• For trees - "height *** arshin".

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

• 1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm The name comes from the Dutch - "thumb" ". Equal to the width of a thumb or the length of three dry barley grains taken from the middle of the ear.
• 1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin's "three-ruler" - d = 7.62 mm.) Line- the width of the wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
• 1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm.
• 1 point = 0.2540 millimeters.
• 1 geographic mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
  (from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps)).
• 1 nautical mile (1 minute of the earth's meridian arc) = 1.852 km.
• 1 English mile = 1.609 km.
• 1 yard = 91.44 centimeters.

Old Russian Volume Measures.

Bucket.

The main Russian domestic measure of the volume of liquids is bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 cups = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 cups = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters - according to other sources, rarely). Bucket- iron, wooden or leather dishes, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be "in the rise of a woman." The division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs, in the second half of the XVII century. so called government bucket contained 10 cups, and in a mug - 10 cups, so, the bucket included 100 cups. Then, by decree of 1652, the cups were made three times larger than the previous ones ("cups in three cups"). The trading bucket held 8 mugs. The bucket's value was variable, and the mug's value was unchanged, at 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was equal to 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel.

Barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from retailing wine for small amounts. It was equal to 40 buckets (492 l).

The material for the manufacture of the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:

• oak - for beer and vegetable oils,
• spruce - under water,
• linden - for milk and honey.

Most often, small barrels and barrels from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels held up to forty buckets (forty). Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the XV century. old measures were still common - goal, onion and cleaning... In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobov and belly, the Vyatka bread measure, marten, Perm saptsa (measure of salt and bread), Old Russian bast and pohev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 poods of salt and approximately 3 poods of rye, a bast - 5 poods of salt, and after sewing - about 15 poods of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: the Smolensk barrel, the herring barrel (8 poods of herring; one and a half times less than the Smolensk one). A measured barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and measure up, like a lead, a half-yard".

In everyday life and in trade, they used a variety of household vessels: boilers, jugs, korchaga, brothers, valleys. The importance of such household measures in different places was different: for example, the capacity of the boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the XVII century. a system of cubic units based on 7-foot fathoms was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was introduced. The cubic fathom contained 27 cubic yards, or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine arrangements.

The Wine Charter of 1781 established in every drinking establishment to have "measures attested in the Treasury."

Bottle . The "bottle" measure appeared in Russia under Peter I. Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 bottle = 5 cups = 0.6 liters (half a liter appeared later - in the twenties of the XX century). Since the bucket could hold 20 bottles (20 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the account went to buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, the production of glass by the factory began in 1635. The production of glass vessels dates back to the same time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists. Overseas, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - in different countries, this ranges from 0.63 to 0.76 liters. A flat bottle is called a flask.

Glass quarters. (modern production).

(from German Stof) = 1/10 bucket = 10 cups = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The damask was similar in shape to a quarter.

Damask. Green glass (Russia, 1749). Historical Museum. Moscow.

Mug (the word means - "for drinking in a circle") = 10 cups = 1.23 liters.

A cup (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 of a bottle = 2 scales = 0.123 liters.

Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams Was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik (popular name - "kosushka", from the word "mow", according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 liters.

Quarter (half scale or 1/16 of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrel utensils (that is, for liquid and bulk), differed in a variety of names depending on the place of production (eggplant, baklusha, bochaty), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, magpie), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). The finished barrel products were subdivided into buckets, tubs, vats, barrels and barrels.

Endowa - wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used to serve drinks to the table. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Endova. Arkhangelsk region, Krasnoborsky district, pier Permogorye, a group of villages Mokraya Edoma. White background painting. 24 x 18 x 11. (photo from the site: bibliotekar.ru)

Tub - vessel height - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters.

• Leather bag (wineskin) - up to 60 liters.
• Korchaga - 12 liters.
• Nozzle - 2.5 buckets (Nogorodsk liquid measure, 15th century).
• Ladle.
• Jug.
• Krynki.
• Suddens, misses.
• Tuyesa.

The oldest (first?) "International" measure of volume - Handful(palm with fingers folded in a boat). A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it can hold a larger volume. A handful is two palms joined together.

The box is made of whole pieces of bast, sewn with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large "chests of drawers".

Balakir - a hollowed out wooden vessel, with a volume of 1 / 4-1 / 5, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pots, pots, jugs, throats, millers, birch bark beetroot with lids, tuesa, the capacity of which was about 1 / 4-1 / 2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The capacities of mahotoks, stavts, tuesques, in which they kept fermented milk products - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lags, izhemkas, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in fermentors, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1 / 8-1 / 16 to about 1 / 3-1 / 4 of a bucket. A large clay (drinking) glass and a jug served as a commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia.

Under Ivan the Terrible, in Russia for the first time there were eagles (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: a bucket, an octopus, a half-eagle, a foot and a mug. Despite the fact that valleys, buckets, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sale - hooks (glasses with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In the old Russian measures and in the dishes used for drinking, the principle of the ratio of volumes is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Old measures of volume:

• 1 cubic meter fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cubic meter arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cubic meter vershok = 87.82 cubic meters cm.
• 1 cubic meter ft = 28.32 cubic meters decimeter (liter).
• 1 cubic meter inch = 16.39 cu. cm.
• 1 cubic meter line = 16.39 cubic meters mm
• 1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In commercial practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids ("grain measures") were used for a long time:

• Last - 12 quarters.
• A quarter (couple) - 1/4 of a cadi = 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 liters.
• Chetverik ("measure") = 2.624 decalitres = 26.24 liters.
• Garnets = 3.280 liters.
• Ossmina (the eighth is the eighth part).
• Kadi (tub, shackle) = 20 buckets and more.
• Bigger tub - bigger tub.
• Tsybik - box (tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).

Details: Tea was pressed tightly in wooden boxes, "tsibiki" - leather-covered frames, in the form of a square (two feet side), braided outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umest ("Place" is a possible option).

Russian Measures of weight.

In Russia, the following weight measures (old Russian) were used in trade:

• berkovets = 10 poods.
• pood = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg.
• pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg.
• lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g.
• spool = 4.27 g.
• share = 0.044 g.

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to refer to both the weight and the monetary unit. It is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

Berkovets - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc. Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjork. So in Russia a measure of weight of 10 pounds was called, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg). It is known that a Berkovite was mentioned in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms it was 4.26 g. They said about it: "the spool is small but expensive." This word originally meant a gold coin.

A pound (from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound of dashing." The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold in pounds. Tea was bought on spools. Spool = 4.266g. Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called "octopus" (1/8 pound).

Lot is an old Russian mass unit equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

The fraction is the smallest Old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of the spool or 0.044 grams.

A pood was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was used already in the 12th century. Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, weight) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pood was both a unit of measurement and a counting unit. Even when the weighing results appeared to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovtsy. Back in the XI-XII centuries. used various scales with equal arms and unequal arms: "pood" - a kind of scales with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, "skalvy" - equal arm scales (two-cup). Pood, as a unit of mass, was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Weights used in the 18th century:

Weights	Value in spools		Value in grams	In kilograms	Note
Berkovets	38400	10 poods 400 hryvnia (lb) 800 hryvnia	163800	163,8
Flipper		72 pounds		1179 (1 ton)
Kadi		14 poods		230
Kongar (Contar)	9600	2.5 pounds	40950	40,95
Pood	3840	40 lbs	16380	16,38 (0.1638 centners)
Half a meal	1920		8190	8,19
Steelyard	240	2.5 hryvnia	1022	1,022 (1,024)
Half-crazy	120		511	0,511
Ansyr	128		546	0,546
Large hryvnia (hryvnia) Pound trading	96	32 lots 1/40 pood	409,5	0,4095
Pharmaceutical pound			307,3		according to other sources - 358.8 g
Libra	72	72 spools	307,1	0,3071
Small hryvnia (hryvnia)	48	1200 kidneys 4800 pies	204,8	0,2048
Half-hryvenka	24		102,4	0,1024
Lot	3	3 spools	12,797		Old Russian mass unit.
Spool	1	96 stakes 25 kidneys 1/96 lb	4,266		The old Russian unit for measuring the mass of the spool was used for weighing small but expensive goods. A measure of the volume of bulk solids is how many will fit on the plane of the raised coin.
Scruple (pharmacy)		20 grains	1.24 grams		old unit of pharmaceutical weight.
Bud			171 milligram
Gran (pharmacy)			0.062 grams		It was used in the old Russian pharmaceutical practice.
Share	1/96		0.044 grams 44.43 mg
Pie			43 milligram

Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted.

Old Russian Square Measures.

The main measure for measuring areas was considered tithe, as well as fractions of tithes: half a tithe, a quarter (one - 40 fathoms in length and 30 latitude) and so on. Surveyors used (especially after the "Cathedral Code" of 1649) predominantly a state-owned three-arshin fathom equal to 2.1336 m, thus, a tithe in 2400 square fathoms was approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of the use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would drag on for many years. And then in the 40s of the XVI century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, suggested using a larger unit - four-sided field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 sazhen verst. This proposal was not accepted, but played a role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also strived to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, the tithe was introduced with great difficulty, since the grounds, due to their location and irregular shapes, were inconvenient to measure. More often, a yield measure was used - a shock. Gradually, this measure acquired a value linked to the tithe, and was subdivided into 2 half-heaps, 4 quarters of a heap, 8 half-quarters of a heap, etc. Over the course of time, the hay, as a measure of the area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that, on average, 10 hay kopens were removed from the tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Old Russian square measures:

• 1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers.
• 1 tithe = 2,400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares.
• 1 heap = 0.1 tithes.
• 1 sq. fathoms = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. arshin = 0.5058 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. vershok = 19.76 sq. cm.
• 1 sq. ft = 9.29 sq. inches = 0.0929 sq. m.
• 1 sq. inch = 6.452 sq. centimeters.
• 1 sq. line = 6.452 sq. millimeter.

Monetary units.

• Quarter = 25 rubles.
• Gold coin = 5 or 10 rubles.
• Ruble = 2 half.
• Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble.
• Poltina = 50 kopecks.
• Quarter = 25 kopecks.
• Five-point = 15 kopecks.
• Altyn = 3 kopecks.
• A dime = 10 kopecks.
• Kidney = 1 half.
• 2 money = 1 kopeck.
• A penny (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Half (otherwise - half money) was equal to one kopeck. It is the smallest unit in the old money account. Since 1700 polushki were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Furniture design lessons in the PRO100 program.

Template for determining the degree value of corner loops .

Can be copied with indication of the source and active indexed hyperlink to the site

29.01.2017

In order to obtain objective information about an object or phenomenon, its properties and parameters, we need to describe it: measure, count, disassemble into its constituent elements and reassemble it into a whole. All this, of course, concerns external characteristics and does not reveal the essence of things, which is cognized in a completely different way.

In our daily life, we constantly use measuring instruments such as clocks, electric meters, scales, thermometer, ruler and many others. To measure some quantity means to find out how many times it contains another quantity of the same kind, taken as a unit of measurement.

Today, 95% of the world's population uses the metric system of measurements, but this was not always the case.

reference

The international decimal system of measurements, which is based on the use of units such as kilogram and meter, is called Metric. At the moment, the Metric system of measures is used in most countries of the world. There are, however, several large states that still use the English system of units based on units such as pound, foot and second. These include the UK, USA and Canada. However, these countries have also already adopted several legislative measures aimed at the transition to the Metric system of measures.

In Russia, the Russian system of measures was traditionally used, the main measuring element of which was a person. On the one hand, it is very convenient in everyday economic affairs (the measuring device is always with you), on the other hand, it caused difficulties in trade transactions, in the collection of taxes and in the development of industry (after all, such measuring units are different for different people).

In Russia, in different localities, almost all measures had different meanings, therefore, detailed tables of measures were placed in arithmetic textbooks before the revolution. In one common pre-revolutionary reference book one could find up to 100 different feet, 46 different miles, 120 different pounds, etc. After all, people have different steps and the length of their feet is not the same, and everyone's toes are of different widths ...

Therefore, it became necessary to look for new unified units of measurement in the surrounding nature.

So our original system was replaced by the metric system, which originated in France in the middle of the 18th century, the system of measures. It was approved for use in Russia (optional) according to the law of June 4, 1899. The use of the metric system of measures in the RSFSR became mandatory by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of September 14, 1918, and in the USSR - by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925.

So, modern units of measurement:

Weights

• 1 ton (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)
• 1 centner (q) = 100 kilograms (kg)
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
• 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

Measures of length

• 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
• 1 meter (m) = 10 decimetres (dm) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters (cm)
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)

Area measures

• 1 sq. kilometer (km2) = 1,000,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 sq. meter (m2) = 100 sq. decimeters (dm2) = 10,000 sq. centimeters (cm2)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 100 aram (a) = 10,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 ar (a) = 100 sq. meters (m2)

Volume measures

• 1 cubic meter meter (m3) = 1000 cubic meters decimeters (dm3) = 1,000,000 cubic meters centimeters (cm3)
• 1 cubic meter decimeter (dm3) = 1000 cubic meters centimeters (cm3)
• 1 liter (l) = 1 cu. decimeter (dm3)
• 1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 liters (l)

Old Russian measures

Since ancient times, a person has always been a measure of length and weight: how much he will stretch out his hand, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc. The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, cubit, span and vershok.

Proverbs and sayings using old measures of length and their translations into modern units of measurement:

1. Arshin and a caftan, and two for patches - 0.71 m and a caftan, and 1.42 m for patches.

2. A beard with vershok, and words with a bag - a beard with 44 cm, and words with a bag.

3. Lies seven miles to heaven, and everything in the forest - lies 7,469 km to heaven, and everything in the forest.

4. We were looking for a mosquito seven miles away, and a mosquito - on the nose - for 7.469 km we were looking for a mosquito, and a mosquito - on the nose.

5. He sees three arshins in the ground - he sees 2.13 m in the ground.

6. A hunter for seven miles walks kissel to slurp - a hunter for 7,469 km walks kissel to slurp.

7. You are from the truth by a span, and it is from you by a fathom - You are from the truth by 19 cm, and it is from you by 2.13 m.

8. Stretch a mile, but don't be easy - stretch 1,067 km, but don't be easy.

9. For this, you can put a pood candle - for this you can put a 16.4 kg candle.

10. A grain of pood protects - a grain of 16.4 kg protects

11. Two tops (or half a top) from the pot, and already the pointer is 0.888 m (or 0.222 m) from the pot, and already the pointer.

12. Her Saturday after Friday climbed two vershoks - her Saturday after Friday climbed 0.888 m.

13. If you don't concede not an inch, you won't concede not 27 cm.

14. If you yield an inch, if you lose a fathom, you will lose 27 cm, you will lose 2.13 m.

15. Seven spans in the forehead - 189 cm in the forehead.

16. Himself with a marigold, and a beard from the elbow - himself from the elbow, and a beard 38-46 cm.

17. I stepped and conquered the kingdom - I stepped 71 cm and conquered the kingdom.

18. Not a step back! - nor 71 cm back.

19. Each merchant measures on his own yardstick - each merchant measures on his own 71 cm.

20. A beard is an arshin, but an inch of a mind is a 71 cm beard, and a mind is 27 cm.

21. Oblique fathom at the shoulders - 2.13 m at the shoulders.

22. Moscow is a mile away, and near to the heart - Moscow is 1,067 km far, and close to the heart.

23. Love is not measured by miles - love is not measured by 1.067 km.

24. From word to deed - a whole verst - from word to deed - 1,067 km.

25. A mile is closer, a dime is cheaper - 1.067 km is closer, a dime is cheaper.

26. Seven miles is not a hook for a young man - 7,469 km is not a hook for a young man.

27. You can see it a mile away - you can see it for 1,067 km.

28. From thought to thought five thousand miles - from thought to thought - 5335 km.

29. To write about other people's sins in arshins, and about your own - in lowercase letters - to write about other people's sins 71 cm, and about your own in lowercase letters.

30. Stretch a mile, but don't be simple - stretch 1,067 km, but don't be simple.

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Span- a measure of length equal to the distance between the ends of the outstretched fingers - thumb and forefinger (19cm - 23cm);

1 inch is an arshin.

Vershok- a measure of length equal to a fraction of an arshine ("44.4 mm).

Verst- a measure of length equal to

500 fathoms =

1500 yards =

Antique mass measures

(In everyday life, measures of mass have long been called measures of weight.)

The image of a beam balance is found in Egyptian monuments created many centuries before our era.

Talent - weight of water filling a vessel with a capacity per unit volume.

1 talent contained 3600 skills;

1 skill= 180 grains "10 grams

By the weight of grains, and later by the weight of water, metal weights were made. The ancient peoples kept the weights, which served as a standard, either in temples (Egypt) or in government offices (Rome).

Ancient measures of mass in Russia

Hryvnia- the oldest measure of weight in Russia. Introduced from the East, from Iraq. Subsequently, the hryvnia in Russia was called the pound.

By the 19th century, the following system of measures of weight was formed in Russia, which was used before the October Revolution:

Kul- a measure of the mass of bulk solids. Depending on the type of bulk solids, the measure had a different numerical value. The rye crop was equal to 151.5 kg, for oats - 100.3 kg.

Who was in control of the measures in Russia?

The supervision of measures, including measures of weight, has been carried out for a long time. The need for such supervision was first mentioned in the "Church Charter" of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (X century). The letter of the Novgorod prince Vsevolod (XII century) says: "Trading scales, measure and thickets from the scales to watch over the bishop." The punishment for abuse was supposed to be "close to death", the guilty person was threatened with the loss of property.

Thus, weights and measures began to be kept in churches. Weighing was carried out in churches at the end of the service.

From the middle of the 16th century, the observation of measures of length, weight and capacity (volume) passed to the civil authority. In 1550, stamped ("printed") measures were made and sent to the elders and other officials.

It was a brilliant idea: the units of measurement of different quantities turned out to be connected in a certain sequence.

_____________________________

XVIII century - there is a need to introduce an international system of measures (common for all peoples).

On May 8, 1790, the French National Assembly adopted a decree reforming the system of measures. Special commissions were created, in which the largest mathematicians and astronomers of that time took part. We decided to take one forty-millionth part of the meridian as a unit of length.

By measuring the meridian passing through Paris, and finding its one forty-millionth part, scientists have obtained the length of the new measure - 1 meter.

1799 - the work on the creation of the metric system of measures has been completed. But this system of measures did not spread for a long time.

1875 - a conference was called in Paris. Representatives of the states signed the metric convention (treaty) on the recognition of the metric system as international. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established.

1889 - 34 standard meters and 43 standard kilograms were made. International prototypes of the meter and kilogram were deposited in France, at the premises of the International Commission for Weights and Measures in Sevres, near Paris.

1960 - at the XI General Conference, the International System of Units (SI) was adopted.

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Old Russian measures of length, weight, volume

In children's fairy tales and not only we often find measures of length and weight that have long gone out of our use. How can we figure out what corresponds, for example, a verst or a fathom. And if, for example, a slanting fathom or Kolomna verst, then what difference? We will try to give answers to these and many other questions and convert old measures of length, weight and volume into more familiar units of measurement.
Since ancient times, a person needed to know how to describe size, height, distance. At the same time, such measurements had to be understandable (standard) for everyone. To calculate the necessary parameters, it was convenient to use such measures that would always be at hand.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the first measures of length were correlated with the anthropological parameters of a person.

First, let's talk about measures of length. For the convenience of measuring the length, the following constants were taken. Verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

Measures of length

Arshin or step	71.12 centimeters = 0.7112 meters. Arshin was also called a ruler with a unit of measurement "Vershok"
Span	0.25 arshins or 17.78 centimeters = 0.1778 meters
Vershok	0.25 (span or elbow) or 1/16 yard = 4 nails = 2 fingers = 4.445 centimeters = 0.0445 meters
Fathom or verst	1066.8 meters or 1500 yards or 6000 spans or 24000 vershoks
Elbow	length ranges from 38 to 47 centimeters by the 19th century, it is completely out of use
Foot	Old Russian and English measures of length. 1 foot = 1/7 fathoms = 12 inches = 30.48 centimeters = 0.3048 meters)
Inch (thumb - Holland)	1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 centimeters
Line	1 line = 10 dots = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters
Point	0.2540 mm
Geographic mile	A mile (lat mile) is a thousand large (double) steps. Corresponds to 1/15 of a degree of the earth's equator = 7 versts = 7.42 kilometers
Nautical mile	1 nautical mile (1 minute of the earth's meridian arc) = 1.852 km
English mile	Equals 1.609 kilometers
Yard	Equals 91.44 centimeters

The meaning of the word "Arshin" lies in its root. "Ar" - in ancient Russia meant land or furrow. And to measure the distance traveled, it was convenient to use the step. It was decided to use its length as a measure of length. Therefore, along with the "yardstick" one can often find a "step". Their length was 0.7112 meters. The well-known saying "Do not measure everyone with one ashin" should be attributed to the merchants who used a special - "state yardstick". Tyutchev's lines should be attributed to the same method of measurement: "You cannot understand Russia with your mind, you cannot measure with a common yardstick (official)." The unit of measurement for which was equal to the vershok. It was a wooden ruler, on which the state seal was sure to break through. In the absence of such a measuring device, people used the "elbow" or "span" (metacarpus or hand).
Smaller values ​​were used to measure short lengths. The most widespread of which was the "span". It was equal to one fourth of an arshine, therefore it was also called "a quarter" or "a four". The span in Russia has been used since the 17th century and was divided into three types.

1. "Small span (a quarter of an arshin)" - the length between the ends of the divorced thumb and forefinger. Other names are pyadnitsa, spade, span, span = 4 vershok = 17.78 centimeters.
2. "Big span "- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
3. "Span with somersault" ("Span with somersault") - an span with an increase in two joints of the index finger = 27-31 cm

"Verst" or as it was called "field". Used to measure long distances. Initially it indicated the length of the plowing path from one plow turn to the next.Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a verst was equal to 1000 sazhens - "boundary verst" (2.16 kilometers). Under Peter I verst already consisted of 500 sazhens and received the name - "travel (five hundredth) versts" (1066.8 meters).

A milepost was also called a milestone on the road. The roads on which such "versts" were set up were called pole roads. "Milestones" or milestones were usually painted in an inclined strip, so that it was better seen, the number of miles was written on the pillar. Milestones in Russia began to be erected during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676). These pillars were especially high on the way from Moscow to the village of Kolomenskoye. This is where the expression Kolomenskaya verst came from, which in a figurative sense characterizes very tall and thin people.

Fathom is one of the most common measures of length. It comes from the verb to reach (reach) - the length that you can reach with your hand. There were planted measuring ropes and wooden "folds". Distinguish more than ten by the type and name of fathoms.

1. "Swing fathom" - the distance between the ends of the fingers of the widely spaced hands of an adult man.
2. "Oblique (oblique) fathom" - the distance from the toe of the left leg to the end of the middle finger of the right hand raised up. She is famous for the proverb: "oblique fathom in the shoulders", which is used to describe people of a heroic physique.
3. "City fathom" was equal to 284.8 centimeters
4. "Untitled" - 258.4 centimeters
5. "Great fathom" - 244 centimeters
6. "Greek fathom" - 230.4 centimeters
7. "State fathom" - 217.6 centimeters
8. "Tsar's fathom" - 197.4 centimeters
9. "Church fathom" - 186.4 centimeters
10. "People's fathom" - 176 centimeters
11. "Masonry fathom" - 159.7 centimeters
12. "Simple fathom" - 150.8 centimeters
13. "Small fathom" - 142.4 centimeters
14. "Sea fathom" - 182.88 centimeters
15. "Four yards fathom" = 4 arshins = 284.48 centimeters
16. "Trumpet fathom" - for measuring the length of pipes - 187 centimeters
17. "Fathom without a string" - the greatest distance between the sole of the left leg and the end of the big toe of the right hand raised upwards - 197.2 centimeters.

The elbow is a measure of length, the first mention of which dates back to the 11th century. Its numerical value ranged from 10.25 to 10.5 vershoks (46 - 47 centimeters). The elbow received its main distribution in trade. It was very convenient for merchants to measure their goods (mainly on canvas, linen, fabrics) in this way.

Palm - sixth part of the elbow (7.5 - 7.8 centimeters).

Top (half-vershok; quarter-vershok) - in modern terms is approximately 4.45 centimeters.

When determining human height, the count was carried out after two arshins (obligatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 14 vershoks in height, this meant that he was 2 arshins 14 vershoks, i.e. 205 cm. The growth of animals was measured in vershoks, and trees - in arshins.

Measures of length (used in Russia after the "Decree" of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers

1 fathom = 3 yards = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters

Volume measures

Bucket	1 bucket = 1/40 barrel = 10 cups = 30 pounds of water = 100 cups = 20 bottles = 12 liters
Barrel	1 barrel = 40 buckets = 492 liters
Cubic (cubic) fathom	1 cubic fathom = 27 cubic yards = 343 cubic meters ft = 9.714 cubic meters meters
Cubic arshin	1 cubic yard = 4096 cubic inches = 21952 cubic inches = 0.3597 cubic inches meters
Cubic inches	1 cubic inches = 87.82 cubic meters centimeters
Cubic foot	1 cubic meter ft = 28.32 cubic meters decimeter (liter)
Cubic inch	1 cubic meter inch = 16.39 cu. centimeters
Russian bottle	1 bottle = 1/20 bucket = 1/2 bottle = 5 cups = 0.6 liters
Damask (from German Stof)	1 bottle = 1/10 bucket = 10 cups = 1.23 l
Mug	1 mug = 10 cups = 1.23 liters
Charka	1 cup = 1/10 damask = 2 scales = 0.123 liters.
Stack	1 stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams
Shkalik (kosushka)	1 scale = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.
Tub	1 tub = 2 buckets = 22-25 liters
Quart	1 quart a little over a liter
Kadi (tub)	1 tub = 20 buckets

In the old Russian measures and in the dishes used for drinking, the principle of the ratio of volumes is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

The bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4-quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The volume of the bucket was equal to 134.297 cubic inches.

Mug (the word means - for drinking in a circle) = 10 cups = 1.23 liters.

Tub - height - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters.

A handful - a palm with fingers, folded in a boat. A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it can hold a larger volume. A handful is two palms joined together.

Balakir - a hollowed out wooden vessel, with a volume of 1/4 to 1/5, buckets.

Weights

The word "hryvnia" was used to refer to both the weight and the monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

Who has not heard the saying: "small spool but precious". The spool was originally identified with a gold coin. It was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.27 grams. In the old days, tea was sold with zolotniks. In addition to the spools, the "octopus" measure was used for its sale.

Berkovets - this measure of weight was used to weigh wax and honey. Its mass corresponded to a barrel of wax that one person could roll onto a merchant ship (163.8 kg).

A pound (from the Latin word pondus - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound is dashing." This measure was used by sugar traders.

Lot is a unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

Fraction is a mass unit equal to 1/96 of the spool or 0.044 grams.

Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, weight) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pood was both a unit of measurement and a counting unit.

Area measures

The main measure for measuring areas was considered to be tithe, as well as fractions of tithes: half a tithe, a quarter (one - 40 fathoms in length and 30 in latitude).

Surveyors used mainly a state-owned three-arshin fathom equal to 2.1336 m.

Tithe	1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares
Square verst	1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers
Mop	1 heap = 0.1 tithes
Square fathom	1 sq. fathoms = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters
Square arshin	1 sq. arshin = 0.5058 sq. meters
Square vershok	1 sq. vershok = 19.76 sq. centimeters
Square foot	1 sq. ft = 9.29 sq. inches = 0.0929 sq. meters
Square inch	6,452 sq. centimeters

Monetary units

Quarter = 25 rubles
Gold coin = 5 or 10 rubles
Ruble = 2 half = 100 kopecks
Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble.
Poltina, fifty kopecks = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Two-corner = 20 kopecks.
Five-point = 15 kopecks
Pyatak = 5 kopecks.
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half) = 1 kopeck.
A penny (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Half (otherwise - half money) was equal to a quarter of a penny. It is the smallest unit in the old money account.