In the modern Russian literary language, book vocabulary bears the stamp primarily Old Slavonic language. This is manifested in the presence of Old Church Slavonic morphemes (suffixes and prefixes), added during word formation to native Russian, Old Church Slavonic or foreign-language roots:
-ti-, -stv-, -stvi-, -ost, -ni-, -eni-, -ani- etc. (these suffixes usually serve to form verbal nouns characteristic of book speech; in colloquial speech we rarely resort to such nouns, preferring verbs): develop - develop you e, master – master eni e, influence – influence neither e, produce – production stv oh, hello - hello sti e, search - search neither I;
-tai, -tel: progress tai, Glasha tai, voyeur tai, authorities tel, under tel, creation tel ;
bottom- (nis-), up- (resur-), from (is-), pre- (pre-), through-: walk(neutral) – nis walk(book) , fall(neutral) – nis fall(book) , sing(neutral) – sun sing(book) , give(neutral) – WHO give(book) , sit(neutral) – sun sit down(book) , conduct(neutral) – pre conduct(book) , write(neutral) – before write(book) .
All participle suffixes (-ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -box-, -vsh-, -sh-, -t-, -eat-, -om-, -im-, -enn-, -nn-) and suffixes comparative and superlatives adjectives (-ee, -e, -she, -aysh-, -eysh-) are also Old Church Slavonic, so these forms are used mainly in book speech: Vedas ohm oh, store them oh, nonsense ushch oh, liku yushch yay, cheerful box yay, scream asch yay, love box oh, saved me yonn oh, great aish yay, smart eish th etc. IN colloquial speech We prefer verbs to participles, and adjectives with words to adjectives in the form of degrees of comparison Very. Wed: The earth, abundantly watered by rain, turned lushly green(book) and The rain poured heavily on the earth, and it turned green(colloquial); most famous(book) – very famous(colloquial), richest(book) – very rich(colloquial), most talented(book) – very talented(colloquial).
Vocabulary borrowed from other languages is stylistically neutral (names of objects taken from other peoples: beets, notebook, doll, sail, lantern, ribbon(Greek) workbench, painter, clover, bandage(German), suit, blouse, loaf, lamp(French) plaid, cupcake, tank, tram, hockey(English.), bazaar, robe, treasury, herd, watermelon, barn(Turkic language), etc.
A large layer of borrowed vocabulary is bookish in its stylistic coloring: abstract, appeal, office, inauguration, ceremony etc.
Foreign language morphemes are actively used by the Russian language to form book vocabulary. These are consoles anti-(gr. opposite, hostility), dis-(French from, times; destruction, removal, absence of something), counter-(lat. against), super-(lat. above, above), fast-(lat. after), suffixes –ist-, -ism-, -izatsi- etc., which can be added to roots that are different in terms of origin - Old Russian, Old Church Slavonic, foreign: anti-scientific, antibodies, antichrist, disinfection, disorganizer, counteragent, counterattack, dust jacket, superman, postfix, postposition, atheist, feminism(women's movement for equal rights of women with men), democratization, as well as foreign language roots
air(lat. bird) – aviation, airmail, auto(Greek self) – machine gun, car, autograph, agro(gr. field) – agronomist, aqua(lat. water) – watercolor, astro(gr. star) – astronaut, astronomy, biblio(Greek book) – library, bibliography, bio(Greek life) – biography, biology, hubbub(gr. marriage) – monogamy, polygamy, gastro(gr. stomach, abdomen) – gastronomy, gastritis, geo(gr. earth) – geography, geology, hemo(gr. blood) – hemoglobin, gram(Greek notation, letter, sign) – logogram, telegram, graph(Greek I write) – autograph, biographer, humane(lat. human) – humanist, humane, demo(Greek people), times(gr. power) – democracy, core(gr. place for running) – airfield, cosmodrome, log(gr. teaching, word) – psychology, morphology, meter(gr. measure) – meter, thermometer, morpho(gr. form) – morphology, pan(gr. all) – panorama, pneumatic (gr. blow) – pneumatic pump, pre(gr. pre) – preamble, prefix, proto(group one) – prototype, psycho(gr. soul) – psychiatrist, psychology, theca(gr. container, box) – library, music library, thermo(gr. warm) – heat treatment, type(gr. imprint, image) – prototype, background(gr. sound) – telephone, tape recorder, photo(gr. light) – camera, epo(gr. speech) – epic, orthoepic.
In book vocabulary, special lexical layers are distinguished: special, official and sublime vocabulary.
Special vocabulary is characteristic of various fields of science and technology. The bulk of words in special vocabulary are terms. A term is the name of a certain concept of some field of science, technology, or art. Terms are contained in special terminological dictionaries. There are few of them in the explanatory dictionary of the literary language, only commonly used ones. For example, oversized– a product or product whose dimensions do not meet the norm, standard (special) (region of production), negation– the same as negation (in grammar: a word or morpheme that contains the meaning of the opposite of what is affirmed, for example “no”, “not”, “neither” (special), (region of science)), negative– 1) containing a negation, rejecting something; 2) in grammar: a sentence containing a negation before the predicate or as part of the predicate (special), (region of science) Negative sentence ; 3) in mathematics: representing a value taken with a minus sign, less than zero (specialty), (region of science) A negative number ; 4) relating to that type of electricity, the material particles of which are called electrons (specialty), (region of science) Negative electric charge . (Ozhegov, Shvedova, 2000 ed.). Terms contained in terminological dictionaries (dictionary of mathematical terms, dictionary of musical terms, dictionary of economic terms) can be classified as passive vocabulary, because These words are used only by a narrow circle of specialists. For people involved in other fields of activity, they are incomprehensible and are unlikely to ever be in demand. For example, prosopopoeia– one of the techniques of artistic depiction, which consists in the fact that animals, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena are endowed with human abilities and properties: the gift of speech, feelings, thoughts (synonym: personification); oxymoron- a phrase consisting of a combination of sharply contrasting, internally contradictory features in the definition of a phenomenon. Sounding silence, bitter joy. (Dictionary of literary terms). It is unlikely that such words will be needed by a specialist in any other field of knowledge, not a literary scholar.
In the explanatory dictionary, next to the words of special vocabulary there is a stylistic mark (specialist.).
The language of business papers must comply with traditions official business style of literary language. The main features of the official business style are accuracy, excluding the possibility of any other interpretations and ambiguities, and locale– the desire to express thoughts in a uniform way by combining standard language models in a certain logical sequence. Bringing linguistic and textual means (arrangement of parts of the text, highlighting paragraphs, rubrication, choice of font, etc.) official documents to a single sample, i.e. standardization and unification of business writing, justified by considerations of convenience, saving time when composing texts business letters, their processing. Language models are stable (clichéd, standardized) language expressions that make it possible to express regularly recurring situations of business communication with a high degree of accuracy. Over many years of practice business correspondence language formulas were developed that make it possible to clearly and concisely state the motives, reasons and goals of an official message, formulate a request, warning, order, assurance, refusal, etc.: in confirmation of our agreement...; in accordance with the customer's letter... etc. (motive for creating the document); due to delay in receiving the cargo...; in connection with the completion of work on... etc. (reasons for creating the document); for approval controversial issues ...; to avoid conflict situations...; etc. (the purpose of creating the document); please consider the opportunity...; I order the creation of a commission...; We insist on compliance with all terms of this agreement... etc. (request, order, demand); We remind you that the agreement expires... etc. (reminder, warning); appoint to the position of head of department...(order, order); we inform you that...; we inform you that... etc. (message, notification), etc.
Words and expressions of official vocabulary used in a different, non-official business style of speech are called clericalisms (from the word office - a department of an institution in charge of official correspondence and preparation of current documentation). If in an official letter you can “raise the question of marriage,” then in a personal letter addressed to your beloved girl, this combination of words is inappropriate. In the first case, this is the vocabulary of an official business style, in the second - clericalism. The concept of “bureaucracy” was introduced by K.I. Chukovsky. Officialism is a clerical cliche that is perceived negatively because it impoverishes live speech, does not correspond to the chosen style, and its use is not justified. For example, you cannot say to a child: “What issue are you crying about, baby?”
In the explanatory dictionary, next to the words of official business vocabulary there is a stylistic mark (official).
In book speech it stands out noticeably sublime vocabulary. It allows you to make your speech solemn. Such vocabulary is used especially actively in poetry (hymns, odes). Most of its origin is archaisms - outdated words(not to be confused with historicisms - words denoting objects and phenomena that have passed away, for example, posad- part of the city located outside the city walls, inhabited by artisans and merchants; golovazhnya– measure of salt Ancient Rus'; hryvnia – currency unit Ancient Rus', a silver ingot weighing about half a pound). Basically, archaisms are Old Slavonicisms: lips - lips, cheeks - cheeks, eyes - eyes, forehead - forehead, hands - hands, right hand - right hand, sleep - skin, father - father, Fatherland - Motherland etc.
In the explanatory dictionary, next to the words of sublime vocabulary there is a stylistic mark (high).
In journalistic works, sublime vocabulary is used for two purposes: to create solemnity and as a means of irony. An ironic impression is created when colloquial or colloquial words are used next to words of sublime vocabulary.
Vocabulary of book styles (also called “vocabulary of written speech”*) are words that are typical for book presentation, are used primarily in written speech and are not typical for ordinary, casual conversation.
* See, for example: Modern Russian language / Ed. D.E. Rosenthal. 4th ed. M., 1984. P. 82, etc.
As can be seen from the definition, for a correct understanding of what kind of vocabulary we are talking about, we must remember two parts of this definition: the one where the characteristic characteristic of this vocabulary is stated ("... such words and phrases that are characteristic of book presentation are used mainly in written speech...") and those where another sign is denied ("...uncharacteristic of ordinary casual conversation").
If we forget about the second part of the definition, then we can, firstly, mistakenly classify all words that are found in books and in written language as the vocabulary of book styles, and secondly, we may not consider bookish words that are sometimes used in casual conversation to be bookish ( although they are uncharacteristic for him).
From what has been said, it is clear that the term “vocabulary of book styles” is to some extent arbitrary: after all, we are talking not only about words that are typical specifically for books, but also about words that are typical for newspapers, and for the speech of a speaker, and for business papers*.
* The term “vocabulary of written speech” is also conventional to a certain extent. It also cannot be taken literally, since many words in the speech of the speaker or speaker are also not characteristic of ordinary, relaxed conversation. They resemble the language of books and therefore also belong to the vocabulary of written (book) styles.
So, words used in written speech, in books, uncharacteristic for the conversation of people connected by informal relationships, casual conversation, belong to those that make up the vocabulary of book styles.
In the vocabulary of book styles, several categories of words are distinguished: scientific vocabulary (medical, biological, chemical, etc.), production and technical *, official business, social journalistic, poetic and, finally, words that are difficult to assign to any or a certain style of written speech (they could be called “general book”). In the future, they will be called “book words”** (for more information about them, see the section “Book words”).
* Words scientific and industrial-technical, which belong to non-national vocabulary, are not discussed in detail in this section for the following reasons. When using them directly, i.e. when used in specialized literature, in the trade press, they appear as devoid of any expressive properties, since they are the officially accepted names of the corresponding special objects and phenomena.
In the same case, when they are used outside of special contexts, their properties coincide with the properties of “book” or neutral words. The question that arises with such use about functions and methods of entering them into non-specialized text is of independent interest for the problem of using non-popular words, which is not directly related to the problem of using stylistically colored vocabulary.
** From the above it is clear that the term “bookish” is used (as part of the term “Vocabulary of Book Styles”) both in relation to all words that are not typical for casual conversation, and in relation to a certain part of these words.
Official business vocabulary is given in dictionaries with the mark “official.” - official.
Newspaper and journalistic vocabulary does not have a single mark in dictionaries. In Ushakov's Dictionary, the words of this group are labeled "newspapers." - newspaper, "public." – journalistic or “rhetoric.” – rhetorical (sometimes “bookish.” and less often “poet.”). In the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" S.I. Ozhegov and in the 4-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the words of newspaper and journalistic vocabulary are marked “high.” – high (or are given without any markings). The 17-volume Dictionary of the USSR Academy of Sciences does not distinguish this vocabulary in any way.
Poetic vocabulary is usually given with the mark “poet.”, and sometimes with the mark “high.”.
Finally, the last category of words in the vocabulary of book styles, which we agreed to call “bookish,” is usually accompanied by the label “bookish.” (and sometimes with the mark “high,” i.e., the same as the words of newspaper, journalistic and poetic vocabulary).
And now in more detail about the named groups of vocabulary of book styles.
Book words
Book words (vocabulary of book styles) are words that are found in scientific literature (in articles, monographs, textbooks), and in journalism (including in a newspaper), and in business documents, and in fiction*, why They are difficult to assign to any particular style. These include: aboriginal, hypothesis, hyperbolize, view, disharmonize, given ("this"), disorient, declarative, slapstick, introduction, emergence, innate, pompous, hegemony, illusion, illusory, intuition, eradication, dry up, for, origins , count, indifferent, proper, transformation, touch, lighting (“image, display”), colleague, motive (“reason”), punctual, original, unreal, find, sudden, prevail, due to, due to the fact that, loss, etc. .
* So, for example, the word transformation can be found in the author’s language of the fiction writer, in journalistic and scientific works (below it is in italics): “At that time I was very busy transforming the Konstantinovsky Land Survey School into the Konstantinovsky Land Survey Institute” (S. Aksakov); “Methods were demonstrated for converting a telephone into a microphone that transmits received speech over a distance of hundreds of kilometers” (New World. 1971. No. 11. P. 176), etc.
In addition, words that can hardly be said to be used in literature are bookish. different styles written speech, but which are clearly uncharacteristic of casual conversation. These are, for example, memorable, excess, overthrow, gain, etc.
Some book words stand out for their “scientific” character, gravitate (but do not belong!) to scientific terminology (impulsive, intense, hypothesis, hyperbolize, prevail, illusory, etc.), which gives grounds for some linguists to call them “general scientific words” . Others make up a category that can conventionally be called bookish-literary (overthrow, loss, mortal, hope, thirst, lofty, sweet-tongued, memorable, scourge, trend, great, unattainable, visit, pet, gain, etc.). At the same time (this is worth emphasizing again) neither one nor the other belongs to any one style. Thus, hypothesis, intensive, identical, isolate, interpretation, ignore, transformation, characterize, etc. are used not only in scientific works, but also in journalism (and some of them, such as intensive transformation, are characterized in official business documents); the words introduction, assign, implementation, etc. are characteristic not only of the language of journalism, but also of the official language business documents; bookish and literary terms: to overthrow, to crave, memorable, scourge, fermentation, unattainable, etc. are inherent not only in the language of fiction, but also in the language of journalism, etc.
The “bookishness” of book vocabulary can be different. In some cases it is not very noticeable, not very distinct; words with such a faint bookishness are called moderately bookish*. These include many verbal nouns na -nie, -enie, -tie, formed from stylistically neutral and moderately literary verbs: emergence, taking, touching, weighing, receiving, touching, considering, walking, etc., as well as such nouns as importance, exile , incident, origins, measure, enemy, innovation, appearance, inhabitant, object (in the meaning of “a phenomenon, object, person to which someone’s activity, someone’s attention is directed”), massacre, etc. Moderately bookish are also words innate, pompous (and pompousness), significant (and significantly, significance), visible (visibly), perverted (perverted, perversion), sophisticated (sophisticated, sophistication), sudden (suddenly, suddenness), unattainable (unattainable), immemorial; inexhaustible, repeated (repeatedly, repeatedly), charming (charming, charming), seductive (seductively), erect, lay, arise, renew, instill (hope, faith), choose, get rid of ("eradicate"), isolate, dry up, indignant , behead, implement, characterize; very, from the outside, must; something, somewhat (in the meaning of “to some extent”: “somewhat tired”), some, as a result, since, etc.**
* The authors of the 4-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, in which bookish vocabulary is in principle distinguished (by the mark “bookish.”), do not give marks to moderately bookish words, considering them stylistically neutral. More or less consistently, this vocabulary is qualified as book vocabulary in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D.N. Ushakova.
** You can indicate that some, i.e. moderate, bookishness distinguishes gerunds and participles formed not only from moderately bookish, but also from stylistically neutral verbs.
In other words, “bookishness” is felt much more clearly. That is why they are called purely bookish. These are: altruism, hypothesis, doctrinaire, hypothetical, hyperbole, hyperbolize, hypertrophied, for, illusory, indifferent, colleague, lapidary, nuance, unshakable, neophyte, bearer, nostalgia, promised, clothe, foreseeable, find, odious, burden, prerogative, pet, piety, precedent, zealous, truism, etc.
A significant part of bookish words (moderately and strictly bookish) do not express any emotional assessment, but only name some phenomena, objects, properties, actions (usually of an abstract nature). In many cases, they have an interstyle synonym that completely coincides with them in meaning: given - this; hyperbolize - exaggerate; someone - someone; significant - large; a few - a little; for, since – because; lapidary – short; once - once upon a time, etc.
But among the book vocabulary there are also words that, in addition to denoting the corresponding phenomena, properties, actions, also contain their assessment - positive or negative, disapproving. This evaluation of words is usually indicated in explanatory dictionaries the corresponding mark (“iron.” - ironic, “joking.” - playful, “with a tinge of disapproval,” “with a tinge of disdain,” etc.) or the interpretation of the meaning itself. Litter "shutl." It stands, for example, with the words great, green, dwelling, clothed (and vestments) and some. etc.; marked "iron." we find in the words mortal, pompous, all-low, panacea, notorious, persona (in the meaning of “person”, “personality”), etc. And the evaluative value of such words as doctrinaire, vandalism, insinuation, obscurantist, projector, etc. shown in dictionaries with a corresponding explanation of the meaning of the word. For example:
Vandalism is the merciless destruction and destruction of cultural and artistic monuments*.
A doctrinaire is a person who blindly and pedantically follows a particular doctrine; scholastic, reciter.
* In this and other interpretations given below, words expressing an assessment of the phenomenon or person they call are highlighted.
Official words
Official words are words characteristic of the language of business papers, official documents - orders, decrees, instructions, certificates, reports, resolutions, official letters, etc.: incoming (outgoing) (about documents), collection, above-mentioned, above-mentioned, above-mentioned, capable, premarital, homeownership, subsidy, testator, tenant, memorandum, residence, lessor, presence, due, tenant, failure to leave, non-identification, failure to provide, non-payment, failure to appear, following, capable, transmitting, reside, complicity, party (about a person or institution entering into business contact), notify, notification, loss, theft; prepositions at the expense of, along the line, in business, henceforth to, in part, for the purpose, in fulfillment, etc. All this vocabulary is non-evaluative, which is predetermined by the scope of its application, which excludes the possibility of expressing emotions and subjective assessments.
Newspaper and journalistic words
Newspaper and journalistic vocabulary is vocabulary typical for articles on political topics, works of a socio-economic and political nature, for oratory, newspapers.
A significant layer of it consists of words that give the statement a solemn, pathetic character, which is why they are usually called “lofty”. These include: selfless, proclaim, crucible, herald, banner, messenger, listen (“to closely follow something”), draw, daughter, son (“about people as carriers best features his people, his country"), invincible (invincible, invincibility), indissoluble (indissoluble, indissoluble), gait, create (creation), toast, champion, life-giving, daring (daringly, daring), selfless (selflessly), accomplish, accomplishment , now, commandment, chosen one, leadership, herald, hour, yes (in the function of the particle: “Long live the First of May!”), etc.
Among the high newspaper and journalistic vocabulary, there are words that express a positive assessment of the phenomenon, object, person, etc. called with their help. In explanatory dictionaries, the value of these words is reflected in the interpretation. For example:
Daughter is about a woman who is closely, blood-connected with her people and country.
A citizen is a conscious member of society.
The chosen one is the one who is chosen to perform some high duties.
Such lofty words as coming, now, leadership, toast, accomplish, crucible, army, etc. do not contain evaluations. Indicative in this regard in dictionaries are those interpretations of the above words in which only interstyle synonyms are used. For example:
Complete - complete.
Now - now.
Leadership - leadership, leadership.
Some of the words of newspaper and journalistic vocabulary (they are not high) express irony or contempt: clique, greyhound writer, pygmy, foam remover, puppet, puppet, mercenary, etc.
Newspaper and journalistic vocabulary also includes words that are not emotionally charged, characteristic specifically of the language of modern newspaper, radio and television practice (they are also not among the high ones). A distinctive feature of such words is, in most cases, the figurative nature of their “newspaper” use. These are: service (“household service”, “customer service”, etc.), kaleidoscope (“news kaleidoscope”), formula (“success formula”, “speed formula”), orbit (“in the football orbit”), news, pulse (“pulse of the planet”), country (“country of philately”, “journey to the land of health”), mosaic (“foreign mosaic”), trip (“get a start in life”, “trip to great art”), contact, dialogue ("dialogue of filmmakers different countries") etc.
Some of the words (as well as phrases) figuratively used in a newspaper, typical for a newspaper, radio, are used to express positive attitude to the named object, phenomenon: dynasty (“sports dynasty”, “miner’s dynasty”), green outfit, labor landing, etc.
Poetic words
In the vocabulary of book styles there are words that are called poetic. At first glance, the recognition of some words as specifically poetic may seem strange: after all, modern poets actively use a variety of categories of vocabulary - bookish, and (very widely) colloquial, and colloquial (for the content of these terms, see pp. 126 and 128) and even special. Nevertheless, in modern poetic texts there are words that are characteristic specifically of the language of poetry. It is significant that the authors of the modern "Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" ed. A.P. Evgenieva labels poetic words with the mark “trad.-poet.” (traditional poetic), thereby emphasizing that the tradition of using special words in poetry, unique to it (or most characteristic of it) words is alive. Poetic words include: lot (“fate, fate”), muse, sovereign, fatherly, oak grove (“forest in general”), eyes, azure, azure, unspeakable, darling, scarlet, crimson, sweet, crown (“decorate with a wreath” ), sing, pearl, blush, red, click, prophetic, coming*, non-silent, send, after, boat, bosom, crystal (“clear, pure, transparent”), luminary, down, shelter (“protection, cover”) , stain, oh!, flame, etc. Some of them have an archaic connotation (in explanatory dictionaries they are labeled “obsolete.”, in addition to the label “poet.”). These are words such as down, lot, muse, after, womb, send down, boat, flame, brow and some. etc.**
* Also used in newspaper language.
** Here are some examples from modern poetic texts, in which there are archaic poetisms:
In the village I am grateful to the house
And grateful to the roof, grateful to the stove,
Especially when the trees bend down
And the wind extinguishes the stars like candles.
(D.Sam.)
Not a house on a high rampart,
I am the memory of your home.
Not your friend, a friend sent down by fate,
I am the sound of a distant shot.
(A. Tark.)
Thanks to these powerful monuments,
Theater lights, purple banners
And thanks to the midnight gatherings,
Where everyone is called and everyone is replaced
With the mighty crest of the new surf, -
The wave washes away the wave, and again
The blue bosom sparkles with life.
(P.Ant.)
It is these words that for the most part are used mainly in poetry, while others are azure, unspeakable, coming, sweet, crimson, blush, etc. - can be found both in fiction and journalism. Strictly speaking, these latter lose their predominant attachment to poetry and lyrical prose and merge with other solemn in high words(therefore, in the section devoted to the use of vocabulary of book styles, they are considered without special indication that they are also poeticisms).
33. Book vocabulary
BOOK VOCABULARY - 1) vocabulary associated with book styles, stylistically marked; 2) vocabulary used in written speech and contrasted with spoken vocabulary.
Book vocabulary is used: a) in scientific texts: "Storm - atmospheric phenomenon, consisting of electrical discharges between the so-called cumulonimbus (thunderstorm) clouds or between clouds and earth's surface, as well as objects located on it"(Encyclopedic Dictionary); b) in artistic: “Thunderstorm... Dazzling lightning, instantly filling the entire ravine with fiery light, makes the horses stop and, without the slightest gap, accompanied by such a deafening crack of thunder that it seems the entire the vault of heaven is collapsing above us"(L.N. Tolstoy); c) in journalistic: “As our correspondent reports, yesterday over the central regions Penza region passed unprecedented strength storm. In a number of places, telegraph poles were knocked down, wires were torn, centennial trees; in two villages arose fires as a result lightning strike"(Information note in the newspaper); d) in official business texts: “If the complaint is left without consequences, which, according to the lawyer, one must be prepared for: since the cassation grounds are very weak, the party of convicts, including Maslova, could leave in early June.”(L.N. Tolstoy “Sunday”). (Selection of texts by D.E. Rosenthal.)
Book vocabulary in the narrow sense is words that are accompanied by the mark in explanatory dictionaries books, marking the text, distinguishing it from other texts. This vocabulary has a number of characteristics: it is stable, traditional (follows established patterns), complex in composition, and not numerous, for example: incurable, unshakable, impartial, odious, odyssey, unambiguous; unshakable - 1) “completely motionless, not wavering”; 2) “one that cannot be shaken or destroyed”; 3) “firmly established, unshakable, unchanging”: “Zakharych seemed to be the god of carpentry, the personification of all that simple, but strong and unshakable life”(S.G. Petrov-Skitalets); indelible– “one that cannot become invisible, disappear; one that cannot be erased from memory”: “The princess remembers those days of walks and conversations. They left in my soul Indelible track"(N.A. Nekrasov).
Book vocabulary in the broad sense is a significant layer of the dictionary, which, according to a number of scientists, includes the following main categories of words: 1) words denoting various abstract concepts from the field of natural phenomena, physiological and psychological states person, culture and way of life of people, etc., i.e. abstract, or abstract vocabulary: virtue, valor, malice, despondency, courage, plunge, coming etc.; 2) words that represent scientific and socio-political terms: abstraction, hypothesis, mimicry, utilitarian, state; 3) words official business speeches: obligation, code, decree, as a consequence, above and etc .; 4) words characterizing the life, way of life and experiences of people of past eras, i.e. archaisms and historicisms: in vain, this, morning star, steward, chain mail; 5) many professional words(professionalism): matrix -"plate with an in-depth image of letters for casting" (typ.), galley -"kitchen on the ship"; 6) words characterizing the life of various peoples, their specific national features (exoticisms): miss, lady, mister, speech - English words; monsieur, madame– French; signor, signora, gondola– Italian; donna, bullfighter, castanets - Spanish; 7) barbarisms: “In a word, scandalous did something terrible"(N.V. Gogol); 8) poetic and folk poetic words: fatherland, gold, turn red, azure, hula, potion.
Sometimes the inclusion of business vocabulary in this series raises objections, since historically the language of business documents belongs to the colloquial (original Russian) language, as opposed to the bookish (Church Slavonic) language. In this case we are faced with a contrast scientific knowledge and everyday consciousness, due to which the official business style, due to the large public importance, popularly represents book speech as a whole. This, obviously, is still supported among dialect speakers ancient tradition: folklore, according to A.P. Evgenieva, played the role of a supra-dialectal (conventionally literary) language, and, as is known, the language of folklore is distinguished by stable formulas, constant epithets, etc. (as a form of oral speech). Of all the styles of the literary language, it is richest in cliches ( stable combinations) formal business style. Probably, to some extent, due to these ancient traditions, it is stamps that are perceived by ordinary consciousness as indicators of a high (supra-dialect) level of a codified language.
“The idea of the “bookishness” of speech has not remained unchanged throughout the history of the Russian language. In the second half of the 18th century. it was associated primarily with a high syllable in the first half and middle of the 19th century. - with “artistry”, sophistication, education, beauty. Then “bookishness” begins to be associated with journalistic and scientific speech. In the modern Russian language, the concept of “bookish speech” is multifaceted... Often “bookishness” is associated with official business speech” (A.I. Gorshkov).
Book words can have stylistically neutral synonyms: aspirations - hopes, future - future, argue - prove, for - because etc.
Book words are rarely used in colloquial speech.
See: SPOKEN VOCABULARY
Literature
1. Gorshkov A.I. Book speech // Russian language: encyclopedia. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1979. P. 112.
2. Kasatkin L.L. Book vocabulary // Brief reference book on the modern Russian language. M.: Higher School, 1991. P. 23.
3. Krysin L.P. Book vocabulary // Modern Russian language. Lexical semantics. Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography: textbook. aid for students Philol. fak. higher textbook establishments. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2007. pp. 152–153.
4. Rosenthal D.E. Handbook of the Russian language: practical stylistics. M.: ONIX: Peace and Education, 2001. pp. 84–87.
Book vocabulary consists of words that are used primarily in written and oral functional versions of book speech.
Book vocabulary is grouped mainly into such large subject-thematic associations as:
socio-political vocabulary ( state, party, fatherland, independence, labor and so on.);
scientific and technical terminology ( dialectics, history, literature, writing, literature, art, linguistics, decay, exudative and so on.);
general scientific vocabulary ( a priori, methodology, analysis, thesis, principle, relevant, procedure, reason, definition, parameter, theoretical and so on.);
official vocabulary, including the dictionary of office work, legal, diplomatic vocabulary ( order, reprimand, send, business trip, prosecutor, preamble, embassy, attaché, diplomat etc.).
Among book words there is a large grouping that can be designated as general book vocabulary. It consists of lexemes of a very diverse subject-thematic nature, many of them are distinguished by a large semantic capacity; such words usually appear in expansive and figurative meanings, since by origin they are associated with one or another special terminosphere. For example, absolute, abstraction, absurdity, adventurism, accident rate, amplitude, banality, debatable, data, information, because, paradox, acceptable, refined, clear etc. The listed and similar words are used throughout the entire “space” of book speech. They are also quite active in the speech habits of native speakers of a literary language at the level of their informal communication, i.e. in colloquial speech. Meanwhile, this kind of words should, in our opinion, be considered as “borrowings” from book speech.
Some book words, being polysemantic, in one meaning act as terms of natural science, socio-political, philosophical content, and in the other - as general scientific words, for example apogee, argument, class, crisis, reaction, center, element etc. There is movement within the book vocabulary. A certain part of words undergoes semantic changes as a result of extensive and figurative-metaphorical use.
General scientific terms include such mathematical terms as constant, extrapolate, set.
There is also a process of dissemination of scientific and technical terminology as general book vocabulary. This applies primarily to the terminology of nuclear physics, cosmonautics, and rocketry as the most relevant for modern public opinion: radiation, chain reaction, epicenter, orbit, trajectory, atomic, nuclear.
Scientific and scientific-technical terms in the modern era are becoming widespread in their basic meanings due to the spread of corresponding instruments, technical devices or procedures beyond the narrow framework of production, one or another special area of scientific research and technical activity. This refers to terms such as TV, television, computer, laser, laser, noise, interference and etc.
The book vocabulary also includes layers of expressively colored words. This vocabulary is solemn, poetic, bookish, and official.
“High” words are used in special solemn situations, dynamic contexts of oratory and journalism, full of civic pathos ( apostle, sing, love, future, foresee, champion, pillar, advocate, thorns and so on.). The “high” vocabulary includes most archaisms ( associate, babble and etc.).
Poetic vocabulary, closely related to “high” vocabulary, consists of words used in poetic speech, as well as in artistic prose (in solemn monologues of heroes, in lyrical digressions, etc.). This includes words such as cheeks, lips, cold, face, brow, golden, abode, eyes, gates etc. These and similar words are practically not used in modern speech, with a single exception. They were inherited by the Russian poetic language from the poetic speech of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
“High” and “poetic” words also function in ironic contexts. In fiction and journalism, they are often used as a means of expressing the comic (by combining diverse styles).
The expressive coloring characteristic of the words of the lexical layer under consideration is clearly revealed when comparing the following lexical units: imitate - imitate, reflect - think, argue - prove.
The emphasized “dryness” of the official vocabulary is clearly visible when comparing it with synonyms of other styles: spouse - wife, declare - say, should - must, implement - do, such - this, authentic - the same, appear - come and so on.
§ 88. According to linguistic tradition, the following vocabulary stands out against the background of neutral vocabulary: 1) book-written and 2) oral and spoken speech. In dictionaries, the first is marked as “book”, the second as “colloquial”.
Book vocabulary refers to words that are used exclusively or predominantly in the written and book sphere; introducing them into colloquial speech gives it a touch of bookishness. Actually, all categories of words with functional and stylistic overtones given in the previous section are included in book vocabulary, although the latter is not limited to the marked series of words. In the book vocabulary there is a layer of words with the coloring “bookish” and layers of words with a double coloring: “bookish and official business”, “bookish and scientific”, “bookish and journalistic”, “bookish and poetic”. At the same time, book vocabulary can also have various types expressive and emotional coloring.
Examples of book vocabulary: analogy, anomalous, antipode, apologist, apotheosis, a priori, aspect, association, vandalism, vassal, variation, vote, persecution, statehood, disorientation, dequalification, declarative, unanimity, for, isolation, impulse, quintessence etc. In part, this category of words is close to general scientific vocabulary, and in part - to commonly used ones.
Colloquial vocabulary is words that, being literary, give speech a colloquial character. Being introduced into book and written speech, they violate the unity of style. Examples: gasp, joke, balam, chase, to smithereens, fidgety, grunt, waddle, cry, dress up, bungler, reveler, cheap, malicious, greedy, hitch, sucker, mischief, snapped up, tender, slap, get sick, push through and etc.
The difference in stylistic coloring between book and colloquial vocabulary is more noticeable when comparing synonyms (where they exist) and against the background of neutral vocabulary. Wed:
The vocabulary of conversational stylistic coloring (at the same time characteristic of the predominantly oral form of everyday communication) is correlated with the colloquial everyday functional style and has its coloring.
§ 89. At the same time, the vocabulary of oral and everyday speech can be differentiated according to the “degree of literariness.” As the name suggests, this is a normative aspect, not a stylistic one. However, the layers of vocabulary that make up the spoken vocabulary are stylistically colored differently and differ in their areas of application. Therefore, this aspect can also be considered as functional-stylistic (in the broad sense of the word).
According to the “degree of literaryness” and according to the stylistic coloring accompanying one or another “degree,” the vocabulary of oral and colloquial speech is represented by the following varieties:
1) strictly colloquial vocabulary (which has already been discussed), often with a touch of familiarity;
2) colloquial vocabulary.
Actually, colloquial words do not violate the norms of the literary language and are limited only by the sphere of use (oral and everyday life), while colloquial words seem to stand on the verge of literary use and even usually go beyond the boundaries of the literary language. (Colloquial speech is usually defined in comparison with dialect vocabulary. Vernacular is the vocabulary of a low-culture urban environment, known and used, unlike dialect, everywhere.) Vernacular speech is usually divided into coarse (non-literary) and non-coarse (acceptable in everyday oral speech).
Examples of non-rude vernacular: nonsense, feeding, weasel, idle talker, stingy .; huge, stupefied, cowardly, flimsy", get up in arms, lie, bawle, squeeze, catch a cold, reproach, blurt out, yell, strum, spout and etc.
Rubo-colloquial vocabulary (vulgarisms): nonsense, firebrand, pentyukh, belly, snout, bitch, mug, hakhal, trash, punks; eat, smack, crack(There is), stitch up (peren.), get high(with anyone), bark, lick(kiss), etc. As you can see, this includes swear words.
There are also colloquial words that, while violating the norms of the literary language, do not have evaluative or stylistic coloring (except for the signs that define a given word as colloquial non-literary). Therefore they are not considered here. Examples of similar words: see, quickly, ahead of time, theirs, click, kid, here, go (introductory word), dress up(bargain) click, passion(Very), frighten, ill, very(Very). They are used in fiction to characterize characters' speech.
Colloquial vocabulary, although undesirable, is possible in the sphere of written and book communication and only violates stylistic norms (and even then not always: the use of colloquial words is completely justified in journalism, even in scientific polemics, not to mention fiction). It is known that the modern Russian literary language is characterized by a tendency to spread the means of colloquial speech in various spheres of communication. Colloquial speech, especially rude language, is unacceptable in any sphere of literary speech, with very rare exceptions and with a clear stylistic motivation. It is used, for example, in journalism - to express indignation or in fiction - as a means of speech characterization of a character from a certain social environment. However, in these cases, even in the oral and everyday sphere of communication, the use of colloquial vocabulary should be limited and stylistically motivated. In any case, the speaker must be aware that in such and such a case he is using a colloquial word.
Among the extraliterary vocabulary of oral and colloquial speech, dialectisms should also be mentioned. However, these words, unlike the vast majority of colloquial words, do not themselves have a stylistic connotation. They act in a nominative function, naming objects and phenomena. Of course, among dialectisms there are expressively colored words, but they appear as such in the system of dialectal, not literary speech. So, dialectisms are not a stylistic (or at least not specifically stylistic) layer of the vocabulary of a common language, and a non-literary language at that. Although, as is known, they can and are used for stylistic purposes, especially in fiction, most often as a means of creating local color and speech characteristics of characters. In this book, dialectisms will not be specifically considered.
However, in connection with the process of interaction between the literary language and dialects, the gradual inclusion of some dialectisms in the literary dictionary, as well as in connection with the tradition of using dialectisms in fiction, there is a basis for considering the ethos of the layer of non-literary vocabulary in our classification. From a functional point of view (that is, in terms of its functionality and tradition of use), dialect vocabulary has stylistic potential and can, with a certain reservation, act as one of the stylistic reserves of the dictionary.
In the lexical system, there are often cases when the same word simultaneously has several stylistic connotations (from the point of view of different stylistic aspects). For example: drink(bookish, rhetorical), creator(bookish, rhetorical), clique(book, pub., contempt), painted(colloquial, disdainful), dunce(colloquial, contemptuous), etc.
In addition, there are cases when this or that expressively-emotionally colored word, depending on the context, can modify the shade of its stylistic meaning, i.e. has a peculiar polysemy of shades. For example, in different contextual conditions the following words can acquire different, sometimes even opposite, stylistic connotations - from disapproving or ironic to affectionate (however, they are unable to be neutralized): liar, darling, news, brother, fool, admirer, bigwig, peering etc. Stylistic colors of vocabulary are both a historical and changing phenomenon. The changes cover a range of both emotional-expressive and functional-stylistic colors. Among the latter, terms (especially scientific and business ones) are more stable in color.
Examples of changes in emotional-expressive coloring: battle, battle(from previously neutral and even lofty they turn into playful and ironic), if you please(previously respectful - now humorous), inquire(bookish, solemn - ironic), recline(same), etc.
An example of a change in functional-stylistic coloring: the most humble(previously book-official - now ironic). Wed. also a change in the emotional connotation of words in the post-revolutionary period: master, lady, bureaucrat, official, owner and in post-perestroika: opposition, business, entrepreneur, repentance.
§ 90. All noted variations of stylistically colored vocabulary are revealed, as indicated, against the background of stylistically neutral vocabulary and in connection with contextual conditions and stylistic devices. Neutral in this regard is vocabulary that, being used in all spheres of communication and genres, does not introduce stylistic shades into them and does not have an emotionally expressive assessment, for example: house, table, father, mother, mountain, strong, blue, read, sew, do, through, right, seventh etc. Neutral vocabulary, which makes up a huge collection of the dictionary, is interpreted, however, as such, usually in its basic meanings and typical (generally accepted and commonly used) conditions of use.
It is neutral in the vocabulary and in its most ordinary functioning. At the same time, in real life use, especially in oral speech, in fiction and journalism, so-called neutral words are capable of acquiring the most diverse and unexpected emotional, expressive and even functional stylistic colors. Thus, in these cases, words turn from neutral to stylistically colored (contextually).
In relation to artistic speech, the term neutral vocabulary turns out to be conditional and even simply untenable. After all, this vocabulary makes up the vast majority of words in prose works of art (especially in the author’s speech). Moreover, with the help of these means (although not only these, i.e. not only lexical), a true artist of words achieves unusually bright, impressive imagery. The task of the stylistic researcher is precisely to determine the stylistic significance of vocabulary that is neutral in the general linguistic sense.