Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings	they never said you to each other, but always you.
phraseological units – stable combinations words that are close in lexical meaning to one word	at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- outdated words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory	smoke, chatter
bookstore, colloquial vocabulary	daring, companion; corrosion, management; waste money, outback

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

metaphor– transfer of word meaning by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses)
synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed
litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule	Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other	I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa	I came, I saw, I conquered
anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other	Irontruth - alive to envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun– pun	It was raining and there were two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree? Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear!
syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences	young people are welcome everywhere, We honor old people everywhere
multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction	And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger The years are kind to the winner...
asyndeton– construction complex sentences or a number of homogeneous members without unions	The booths and women flash past, Boys, benches, lanterns...
ellipsis- omission of an implied word	I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion– indirect word order	Our people are amazing.
antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin
oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation– transmission of other people’s thoughts and statements in the text, indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…”
questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts	A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him.
parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Over your head.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through space, deliberately destroying the complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.

(13) Unfortunately, as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress There are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between a person and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and plug-in structures
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parcellation
7. question-and-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members offers

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the word in the place of the omission should be plural. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last blank you must substitute the term male, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.

All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only thing left is possible variant– metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down the frosty windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.

Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bashkortostan

Municipal General education state-financed organization"Bashkir boarding school"

urban district city of Neftekamsk

Expressive means of language

in artistic style of speech:

epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor

Lesson plan for the Russian language in 5th grade

Adulina Nailya Nardisovna

higher education teacher

qualification category

Russian language and literature

November, 2014

Lesson topic: Expressive means of language in artistic style of speech: epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

consolidation of the ability to distinguish between studied speech styles, the ability to recognize artistic style in written and oral speech;

development of the ability to find expressive means of language in a literary text.

Educational:

teaching techniques logical thinking, the ability to draw conclusions when determining speech styles; development of a culture of oral and written speech;

the formation of communication skills on the conceptual basis of the speech situation and its components;

correct understanding of a literary text through linguistic fractions, which make up entire figurative units of a literary text;

development creativity students; expansion of vocabulary on the topic “Winter”.

Educational:

nurturing interest in learning the native Russian language;

nurturing love for native nature.

Equipment:

1. Illustrations from paintings on the theme “Winter”

P. Tchaikovsky “Seasons. January. February".

Cards for speech situation, intonation; cards with texts of artistic style of speech.

Artistic literature –

this is the art of words.

K. Fedin.

Greetings. Student activation

Teacher: Hello! How beautiful this world is, and how beautiful we are in this world! Today in class we will try to see this wonderful world through the eyes of artists, composers, and writers. What colors do they use to paint these pictures, images, to create the illusion of our participation in the events and lives of the characters, so that we rejoice and worry with them? After all, artists, composers and poets influence our feelings and convey their emotions using various techniques. Fiction, in particular, influences our imagination through expressive means language.

2. Preparation for the perception of the main topic: repetition of the material covered on speech styles

Teacher: What do our statements depend on? To answer this question, let's look at some texts.

Card 1

1) Timber trucks arrived in the city. They delivered the logs.

2) Heavy timber trucks, stained with spring mud, walked along the street, bending it... They dragged fresh spruce and pine ridges, filled with juice. (According to V. Tendryakov).

3) Petrukha, flushed, ran into the hut:

There are huge cars there...! There are logs on them! Whips - on the ground! Let's hang on!

Suggested answer: our statements depend on where we speak, with whom and why we speak, i.e. from the speech situation.

Teacher: Determine the speech situation of this text (working with a card to the music of P.I. Tchaikovsky “Seasons. Winter”):

Card 2

a) One night I woke up from a strange feeling. It seemed to me that I had gone deaf in my sleep. I lay with my eyes closed, listened for a long time and finally realized that I was not deaf, but that there was simply an extraordinary silence outside the walls of the house. This kind of silence is called “dead”. The rain died, the wind died, the noisy, restless garden died. You could only hear the cat snoring in its sleep.

b) I opened my eyes. White and even light filled the room. I got up and went to the window - everything was snowy and silent behind the glass. In the foggy sky, a lonely moon stood at a dizzying height, and a yellowish circle shimmered around it...

c) The land has changed so unusually; the fields, forests and gardens have been enchanted by the cold. Through the window I saw a large gray bird land on a maple branch in the garden. The branch swayed and snow fell from it. The bird slowly rose and flew away, and the snow kept falling like glass rain falling from a Christmas tree. Then everything became quiet.

Reuben woke up. He looked out the window for a long time, sighed and said:

The first snow suits the earth very well.

The earth was elegant, looking like a shy bride. (K. Paustovsky)

Suggested answer: The text corresponds to the speech situation on card 4.

Card 3

1 – many (schoolchildren, students, scientists...)

Speech Official

situation environment (encyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks)

Communication of scientific information

Card 4

1 – a lot (readers, listeners)

Speech Official

situation setting (works of fiction)

Impact on thoughts, feelings, imagination

Teacher: What style does the text belong to?

Answer: Towards artistic style.

Teacher: How did you determine that the text belongs to the artistic style of speech??

3. Main topic of the lesson

Teacher: We have come to the main idea of ​​our lesson, which is revealed by the epigraph of the lesson: “ Fiction is the art of words."

To understand the topic of our lesson, let's write t Ext from card 2 according to options ( work with card 2 to the music of P.I. Tchaikovsky “The Seasons. Winter"):

Option 1 – a)

Option 2 – b)

Option 3 – c)

Teacher: What words are used figuratively? (Extraordinary silence, dead silence, noisy, restless garden, white and po bright light, dizzying I'm the height, oh dinoka I am the moon yellowish circle, elegant Earth; the rain died, snow, like glass rain, is the face of the earth; a land like a shy bride.

Teacher: What is achieved by using these words in a figurative sense? ( Compare: extraordinary, unusual, special, special - “dead” silence; the rain stopped - the rain died, the wind stopped - the wind died; the noisy, restless garden fell silent - the garden died).

Answer: With the help of these words, the author achieves an impact on the imagination of the readers. The reader “hears” this silence and is overcome with anxiety.

Teacher: The author, in order to influence the reader’s imagination, in order to create a picture of what is happening, in order to introduce the reader into the world of what is happening, uses expressive means of language: metaphors, personifications, epithets, comparisons.

Metaphor- a word or expression used in a figurative meaning based on similarity (bushes in fluffy sheepskin coats - a metaphor “in fluffy sheepskin coats” based on similarity: the snow on the bushes is just as soft, warm, just as warm).

Personification– endowing inanimate objects with the signs and properties of a person (two flowers, two gladioli are talking in a low voice - the personification of “conversing”).

Epithet- this is an artistic definition (from hour to hour the heat is stronger, the shadow has gone to the silent oak trees - the epithet “mute”: oak trees are never silent, the author wants to emphasize the silence of the oak trees).

Comparison- this is a comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one through the other (and the forest pours leaves like copper money - a comparison “like copper money”: the author compares autumn leaves with copper money).

Teacher: Let's try to determine which expressive means of language include the words used in this text in a figurative sense.

Card 5

Extraordinary silence, dead silence, noisy, restless garden, white and po bright light, in sky, dizzying I'm the height, oh dinoka I am the moon yellowish circle, elegant Earth; the rain died, the wind died, the garden died, the moon stood, the cold bewitched;: snow like glass rain; face of the earth; a land like a shy bride.

Suggested answer: epithets -extraordinary silence, dead silence, noisy, restless garden, white and po bright light, in sky, dizzying I'm the height, oh dinoka I am the moon yellowish circle, elegant Earth ;

personifications -the rain died, the wind died, the garden died, the moon stood, the cold bewitched;

comparisons: snow like glass rain; the earth, like a shy bride;

metaphor -face of the earth.

Training exercises(joint work with the teacher)

Card 6. Task: find comparisons, metaphors, personifications, epithets in this miniature.

Blue vault of heaven. Blue vault over the mountains.

Overwhelmed in the summer heat, the earth breathes peacefully with the ripeness of grasses and forests, breathing like a rich loaf taken out of a Russian oven.

But it's cooler than the night. More abundant than dew. Larger than night stars. Summer has passed in the middle. (V. Astafiev).

Checking homework

Teacher: At home, you chose texts of an artistic style of speech, in which words are used in a figurative meaning. metaphors.

Answers: Zarya-Zorenka lost her keys. The month went and didn’t find it, the sun went and found the keys. White basket, golden bottom. There is a dewdrop in it and the sun sparkles.

Teacher: Read the texts that contain personifications.

Answers: Over the bend of the river, the quiet twilight of night lay, from behind the clouds a moon emerged, the moon walks like a tame one! He passes over the village, knocked on a cloud, caused thunder, stopped over the river, and covered everything with silver.

Teacher: Read the texts that contain epithets.

Answers: Silent sea, azure sea, I stand enchanted over your abyss. Friend of my harsh days, my decrepit dove.

Teacher: Read the texts that contain comparisons.

Answers: The blue rails lay like two stretched threads.

A cloud floats over the village like a white swan.

6. Strengthening exercises

Work in 2 groups.

Teacher: Find all the expressive means of language and determine what tone they give to the speech, for what purpose the author uses these means.

Card 7

1 group 2 group

Evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry Under the blue skies

There was darkness in the cloudy sky. Magnificent carpets,

The moon is like a pale spot, Shining in the sun, the snow lies,

Through the dark clouds it turned yellow... The transparent forest alone turns black,

And you sat sad... And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river glitters under the ice.

Answer: personifications- Do you remember, the blizzard began to pour in, the darkness rushed.

Comparisons- the moon is like a pale spot; (snow) with magnificent carpets (lies).

Epithets- in the cloudy (sky), (through) gloomy clouds, (under) blue (skies), transparent (forest), (you) sad.

Conclusion students: In excerpt 1, the tone is sad, the sad tone is achieved through the expressive means of language. In excerpt 2, a joyful, life-affirming tone is also achieved with the help of expressive means of language.

7. Vocabulary work in groups

Compiling an associative field on the theme “Winter” to the music of P.I. Tchaikovsky “The Seasons”:

Group 1 – corresponding to a sad tone.

Group 2 – corresponding to a joyful tone.

Exercise: Select by ear and write down phrases from the proposed vocabulary dictation in accordance with the proposed task:

Beautiful, wonderful forest; deep, clean snowdrifts; lace white snowflakes; the blizzard roars; heavy hats white snow; fluffy snowdrifts; clouds of snow dust; covered with gray snow; frosty silence; gray, cloudy sky; frosty patterns on the window; heavy snowfall gradually turns into a snowstorm; gusty wind; snowy and silent; the snow fell like glass rain; queen pine.

Continue compiling an associative field using illustrations by artists on the theme “Winter”.

8. Summarizing

Thanks to the art of using expressive means of language, artistic speech becomes more beautiful; it can immerse us in the world of the artist’s illusions, take us into the events and reality surrounding the heroes.

9. Homework

The result of our work today will be your creative work on the theme “Winter” at home.

Using the associative field on the topic “Winter”, write a miniature “Winter Wonders”.

Samples creative works

Winter wonders

Winter. My city is covered with gray snow and turns into a snowy kingdom with fluffy snowdrifts. Lacy white snowflakes slowly fall on your face and hands and after a moment turn into droplets of water. The spruce princesses and pine queens put on their winter coats and heavy white silver hats. There is a frosty silence in the forest, which gives winter even more charm. At times, the blizzard howls plaintively or menacingly, and the wind raises clouds of snow dust. Well, if you are sitting at home and don’t feel the vigor of Mother Winter, frosty patterns on the window glass can become the source of your imagination.

Gilvanova Christina,

5th grade

Listening to P.I. Tchaikovsky’s musical play “The Seasons”...

It's still freezing. Ground is covered with snow. There are no birds visible except sparrows and pigeons. And even then they don’t sing. The snow is falling smoothly.

There is very little left until spring. The drops will sing first. Then the birds that have been so missing will arrive. Green grass will appear, the first flowers will bloom. The trees will put on green dresses again. Streams will flow, babbling merrily.

It's still winter. Perhaps this is the last snowfall, the last blizzard this year. Every year winter scares us with its blizzards. Severe cold and snowstorms. This year was no different, the winter was cold - the summer will be hot.

Finally, nature began to slowly wake up after a deep sleep. The first flowers will appear soon - these are snowdrops. It’s so good that winter is leaving with the cold, the sun will appear, which will warm us with its rays and delight us with its appearance.

And here comes the sun!

Gabidullina Katya,

5th grade

In order to make a written text or speech bright, memorable and expressive, authors use certain artistic techniques, traditionally called tropes and figures of speech. These include: metaphor, epithet, personification, hyperbole, comparison, allegory, periphrasis and other figures of speech where words or expressions are used in a figurative sense to give greater expressiveness to what is being said.

What are epithets and metaphors

The most common ones in literary speech are epithets and metaphors.

The word "epithet" Greek has the meaning "attached". That is, the name itself already contains an explanation of the essence - this is a definition that figuratively characterizes an object or phenomenon. The attribute that is expressed by the epithet is thus, as it were, attached to the described object; it complements it emotionally and even semantically.

In linguistics and lexicology, there is not yet a generally accepted theory that precisely explains what epithets and metaphors are. There are usually three types of epithets:

• general linguistic - those that have stable connections that are often used in literary speech (silver dew, bitter frost, etc.);
• folk poetic - used in folklore works (a beautiful maiden, sweet speech, good fellow, etc.);
• individual-author - created by the authors (case considerations (A.P. Chekhov), scratching gaze (M. Gorky)).

Metaphors, unlike epithets, are not only one word, but also an expression that is used in a figurative sense. Metaphors are selected based on the similarity or, conversely, contrast of any phenomena or objects.

How and when a metaphor is used

In more detail, what epithets and metaphors are, as well as what their difference is, can be understood if we understand that the main requirement for using the latter is their originality, unusualness, ability to evoke emotional associations and help imagine some event or phenomenon.

Here is an example of a metaphorical description of the night sky in the story “Three” by M. Gorky: “The Milky Way spread out across the sky like a silvery fabric from edge to edge - it was pleasant and sad to look at it through the branches of a tree.”

The use of stereotyped metaphors that have lost their originality and emotional richness due to frequent use can reduce the quality of the work or spoken speech.

Excessiveness and abundance of metaphors can be no less dangerous. In such cases, speech becomes overly flowery and florid, which can also impair its perception.

How to distinguish between metaphor and epithet

In works, it is sometimes quite difficult to discern which particular tropes the author uses. To do this, you need to once again understand in comparison what epithets and metaphors are.

Metaphor is a figurative device that is based on analogy, the transfer of meaning by likeness, resemblance: “The morning laughed through the windows. Her eyes are dark agates."

An epithet is one of the cases of metaphor, or, more simply, an artistic definition (“Warm milky twilight, icy cold stars”).

Based on what has been said, you can already understand what a metaphor, epithet, personification is and find them in the given example: “It was visible how long needles rushed from the cheerful blue sky, from a high smoky cloud, drops...” (I. Bunin, “Little novel").

It is clear that metaphors were used in it (drops rushed like long needles), epithets (from a smoky cloud) and personification (a cheerful blue sky).

Personification is a special metaphor-allegory

So what is a metaphor, epithet, personification? These, as you already understood, are a means of conveying the author’s attitude towards a phenomenon or object, a kind of unique colors that make it possible to make what is written or spoken bright and memorable.

And from this series we can distinguish personification - a special trope that has a long history, rooted in folk art. Personification is the same as allegory, the transfer of the properties of a living being to phenomena or objects.

One of the genres closest to folklore, the fable, is also built on the use of personification.

Unlike such tropes as metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification, this is also a very economical technique. When using it, there is no need to describe the object in detail; it is enough to compare it with something already familiar in order to evoke the necessary associations: “And how pitiful are the huts of the rural landless poor peasants, covered up to their bellies in the ground!” (I. S. Sokolov-Mikitov, “Childhood”).

What is comparison

It is impossible to imagine a work that is devoid of comparisons, comparisons of something with something, likening one phenomenon to another, which allows you to more accurately, more figuratively describe them and at the same time convey your attitude towards them.

They masterfully mastered the art of using epithets, metaphors, comparisons: “On the blue velvet of the sky, dotted with bright stars, the black patterns of foliage looked like someone’s hands stretched out to the sky in an attempt to reach its heights” (M. Gorky, “Three”).

Difficult cases in defining comparison

Sometimes the expressive technique described above - comparison - can be quite difficult to distinguish from cases when words with the conjunctions “as”, “as if” and “as if” are simply used in a sentence, but for other purposes.

Let us repeat once again - epithets, metaphors, comparisons are paths that help to enrich and “color” what is said. This means that in the sentence “We saw him slowly walking towards the forest” there is no comparison, there is only a conjunction connecting the parts. In the sentence “We went out into the corridor, where it was dark and cold, like in a cellar” (I. Bunin) the comparison is obvious (cold, like in a cellar).

Ways to Express Comparison

And so that in the series of metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification we can finally understand each trope, let’s dwell a little longer on the comparison.

It is expressed in different ways:

• using phrases with the words “like”, “exactly”, “as if”, etc. (“Her hair curled like the tendrils of a pea”);
• or adverbs (“the tongue is sharper than a razor”);
• instrumental case of a noun (“love sang like a nightingale in the heart”);
• and also lexically (using the words “similar to”, “similar”, etc.).

What is hyperbole

It differs from the use of such tropes as metaphor, epithet, comparison, and hyperbole by its particular richness and exaggeration of the essence. Many authors willingly use this technique: “He had a completely impassive, kind of stony, rusty face.”

Hyperbolic devices include fairy-tale giants, Thumbelina, and Thumb, who inhabit fairy tales. And in epics, hyperbole is an indispensable attribute: the strength of heroes is always exorbitant, and the enemy is fierce and countless.

Even in everyday speech one can detect hyperbole: “We haven’t seen each other for a thousand years!” or “A sea of ​​tears has been shed.”

Metaphor, epithet, simile, hyperbole are often used in combination, giving rise to hyperbolic comparisons or personifications and metaphors (“it rained like a solid wall”).

The ability to use tropes will make your speech figurative and vivid

At one time, V.G. Belinsky argued that speaking well and speaking correctly are not the same thing. After all, even impeccable speech, from a grammatical point of view, can be difficult to understand.

And from the above, you probably already understood what a metaphor, epithet, personification is, and that being able to use these techniques is extremely important. A thoughtful reading of the works of the classics will help you with this - since they can be considered the standard for using all the stylistic wealth of the Russian language.

Read Gogol’s lines: “Words... similar to flowers, just as affectionate, bright and juicy...”, in which the author was able to clearly convey his impression of the sound of the words in a small set. And remember that metaphor, hyperbole, epithet are the tools that will sharpen your speech, which means you need to learn to use them!

In literature it is called differently by the term “trope”. A trope is a rhetorical figure, expression or word that is used figuratively in order to enhance artistic expressiveness and figurative language. Different kinds these figures in literary works widely used, they are also used in everyday speech and oratory skills. The main types of tropes include hyperbole, epithet, metonymy, comparison, metaphor, synecdoche, irony, litotes, periphrasis, personification, allegory. Today we will talk about the following three types: comparison, hyperbole and metaphor. We will consider each of the above means of expressiveness in literature in detail.

Metaphor: Definition

The word "metaphor" translated means " figurative meaning", "transfer". This is an expression or word that is used in an indirect meaning; this trope is based on the comparison of an object (unnamed) with another by the similarity of some characteristic. That is, a metaphor is a figure of speech that consists of the use of expressions and words in a figurative sense based on comparison, similarity, analogy.

In this trope, the following 4 elements can be distinguished: context or category; an object located within this category; the process by which a given object performs a specific function; application of the process to specific situations or intersections with them.

Metaphor in lexicology is a semantic connection that exists between the meanings of some polysemantic word, which is based on the presence of similarity (functional, external, structural). Often this trope becomes an aesthetic end in itself, thereby displacing the original, original meaning of a particular concept.

Types of metaphors

It is customary to distinguish between modern theory, describing the metaphor, the following two types: diaphora (that is, a contrasting, sharp metaphor), and epiphora (erased, familiar).

It is carried out sequentially throughout either the entire message as a whole or a large fragment of it. An example can be suggested as follows: “The book hunger continues: more and more often, products from the book market turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away immediately without trying.”

There is also a so-called realized metaphor, which involves operating with an expression without taking into account its figurative nature. In other words, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of such an implementation is often comical. Example: “He lost his temper and got on the tram.”

Metaphors in artistic speech

In the formation of various artistic metaphors, an important role is played, as we have already mentioned, when characterizing this trope, associative connections that exist between various items. Metaphors as a means of expressiveness in literature activate our perception, disrupt the “general intelligibility” and automatism of the narrative.

IN artistic speech and language, the following two models are distinguished, according to which this trope is formed. The first of them is based on personification or animation. The second relies on reification. Metaphors (words and expressions) created according to the first model are called personifying. Examples: “the frost has frozen the lake”, “the snow lies”, “the year has flown by”, “the stream is running”, “feelings are fading”, “time has stopped”, “boredom has stuck). There are also reifying metaphors (" deep sadness", "iron will", "root of evil", "tongues of flame", "finger of fate").

Linguistic and individual varieties of this trope as a means of expressiveness in literature are always present in literary speech. They add imagery to the text. When studying various works, especially poetic ones, one should carefully analyze what constitutes an artistic metaphor. Their various types are widely used if authors seek to express a subjective, personal attitude to life and creatively transform the world around them. For example, in romantic works it is through metaphorization that the writers’ attitude towards man and the world is expressed. In philosophical and psychological poetry, including realistic poetry, this trope is indispensable as a means of individualizing various experiences, as well as expressing the philosophical ideas of certain poets.

Examples of metaphors created by classical poets

At A.S. Pushkin, for example, the following metaphors are found: “the moon makes its way”, “sad meadows”, “noisy dreams”, youth “slyly advises”.

From M. Yu. Lermontov: the desert “listens” to God, the star speaks to the star, “conscience dictates,” the “angry mind” leads the pen.

At F.I. Tyutcheva: winter is “angry”, spring is “knocking” on the window, “sleepy” twilight.

Metaphors and images-symbols

In turn, metaphors can become the basis for various images-symbols. In Lermontov’s work, for example, it is they who make up such symbolic images as “palm tree” and “pine tree” (“In the wild north...”), “sail” (the poem of the same name). Their meaning is in the metaphorical likening of a pine tree, a sail to a lonely person who is looking for his own path in life, suffering or rebellious, carrying his loneliness as a burden. Metaphors are also the basis of poetic symbols created in the poetry of Blok and many other symbolists.

Comparison: Definition

Comparison is a trope, the basis of which is the likening of a certain phenomenon or object to another on the basis of a certain common characteristic. The goal pursued by this means of expressiveness is to identify various properties that are important and new to the subject of the statement in a given object.

In comparison, they distinguish: the object being compared (which is called the object of comparison), the object (means of comparison) with which this comparison occurs, and also common feature(comparative, in other words - “basis of comparison”). One of distinctive features This trope is a mention of both the object being compared, but the general attribute is not necessarily indicated. It is necessary to distinguish comparison from metaphor.

This trope is typical for oral folk art.

Types of comparisons

Various types of comparisons are available. These are constructed in a form that is formed using the conjunctions “exactly”, “as if”, “as if”, “as”. Example: “He is as stupid as a sheep, but cunning as the devil.” There are also non-union comparisons, which are sentences that have a compound nominal predicate. Famous example: "My home is my castle". Formed with the help of a noun used in the instrumental case, this is, for example, “he walks like a gogol.” There are also those who deny: “An attempt is not torture.”

Comparison in the literature

Comparison as a technique is used widely in artistic speech. With its help, parallels, correspondences, similarities between people, their lives and natural phenomena. The comparison, thus, seems to consolidate the various associations that arise in the writer.

Often this trope represents a whole associative series that is needed in order for an image to appear. Thus, in the poem “To the Sea,” written by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, the sea evokes in the author a number of associations with “geniuses” (Byron and Napoleon) and man in general. They are fixed in various comparisons. The sound of the sea, to which the poet says goodbye, is compared with the “mournful” murmur of a friend, his “call” at the farewell hour. The poet in Byron’s personality sees the same qualities that are present in the “free elements”: depth, power, indomitability, gloom. It seems that both Byron and the sea are two creatures with the same nature: freedom-loving, proud, unstoppable, spontaneous, strong-willed.

Comparison in folk poetry

Folk poetry makes extensive use of similes, which are traditionally based similes applied to specific situations. They are not individual, but taken from the stock of a folk singer or storyteller. This is a figurative model that can be easily reproduced in the necessary situation. Of course, poets who rely on folklore also use similar stable comparisons in their work. M.Yu. Lermontov, for example, in his work “Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” writes that the king from the heights of heaven looked “like a hawk” at the gray-winged “young dove”.

Hyperbole: Definition

The word "hyperbole" in Russian is a term that means "exaggeration", "excess", "excess", "transition". This is a deliberate and obvious exaggeration in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize a particular idea. For example: “we have enough food for six months,” “I’ve already said this a thousand times.”

Hyperbole is often combined with other various words to which it gives an appropriate coloring. These are metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”) and hyperbolic comparisons. The situation or character portrayed may also be hyperbolic. This trope is also characteristic of the oratorical, rhetorical style, used here as a pathetic device, as well as the romantic one, where pathos comes into contact with irony.

Examples that use hyperbole in Russian are: idioms and phraseological units (“lightning fast”, “quick as lightning”, “sea of ​​tears”, etc.). The list can be continued for a long time.

Hyperbole in literature

Hyperbole in poetry and prose is one of the most ancient artistic techniques of expressiveness. The artistic functions of this trope are many and varied. Literary hyperbole is necessary mainly to point out some exceptional qualities or properties of people, events, things. For example, the exceptional character of Mtsyri, a romantic hero, is emphasized with the help of this trope: a weak young man finds himself in a duel with a leopard an equal opponent, as strong as this wild beast.

Properties of hyperbolas

Hyperbole, personification, epithet and other tropes tend to attract the attention of readers. The peculiarities of hyperbole are that they force us to look at what is depicted in a new way, that is, to feel its significance and special role. Overcoming the boundaries established by verisimilitude, endowing people, animals, objects, and natural phenomena with “wonderful” properties, possessing supernatural properties, this trope, used by various authors, emphasizes the conventionality of the artistic world created by the writers. Hyperboles also clarify the attitude of the creator of the work towards the depicted - idealization, “exaltation” or, conversely, ridicule, denial.

This trope plays a special role in satirical works. In satires, fables, epigrams of poets of the 19th-20th centuries, as well as in the satirical “chronicle” of Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City”) and his fairy tales, in the satirical story " dog's heart"Bulgakov. In Mayakovsky's comedies "Bathhouse" and "Bedbug" artistic hyperbole reveals the comedy of characters and events, emphasizing their absurdity and vices, acting as a means of caricature or caricature.

B8

Facilities artistic expression

Possible difficulties	Good advice
The text may contain words that already exist in the Russian language, reinterpreted by the author and used in an unusual combination for them, for example: spring language.	Such words can be considered individual author’s neologisms only if they acquire in this context some fundamentally new meaning, for example: vodyanoy - “plumber”, quartering - “to give grades for a quarter”. In the example given, the word spring means “clean, unclogged” and is an epithet.
Sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish between an epithet and a metaphor. The night bloomed with golden lights.	Metaphor is a figurative device based on the transfer of meaning by likeness, resemblance, analogy, for example: The sea laughed. This girl is beautiful flower. Epithet is special case a metaphor expressed in an artistic definition, for example: lead clouds, wavy fog. The above example contains both a metaphor (the night was blooming with lights) and an epithet (golden).
Comparison as a figurative device can be difficult to distinguish from cases of using conjunctions (particles) as if, as if for other purposes. This is definitely our street. People saw him disappear into the alley.	To make sure there is a figurative device in the sentence comparison, you need to find what is being compared with what. If there are no two comparable objects in a sentence, then there is no comparison in it. This is definitely our street. - there is no comparison here, the affirmative particle is used exactly. People saw him disappear into the alley. - there is no comparison here, the conjunction is like adding an explanatory clause. The cloud was flying across the sky like a huge kite. The kettle whistled like a poorly tuned radio. - in these sentences comparison is used as a figurative device. The cloud is compared to kite, kettle - with radio.
Metaphor as a figurative device is sometimes difficult to distinguish from a linguistic metaphor, which is reflected in the figurative meaning of a word. In physical education class, children learned to jump over a horse.	A linguistic metaphor is usually enshrined in explanatory dictionary as a figurative meaning of the word. In physical education class, children learned to jump over a horse. - In this sentence, the horse metaphor is not used as a figurative device, this is the usual figurative meaning of the word. The value of metaphor as a pictorial device lies in its novelty and the unexpectedness of the similarities discovered by the author. And autumn tears off the fiery wig with the paws of the rain.

What is personification? Personification is the assignment of attributes of living beings to nonliving things. For example: tired nature; the sun is smiling; voice of the wind; singing trees; Bullets were singing, machine guns were beating, the wind was pressing our palms into our chests...; More and more bleakly, more and more clearly the wind is tearing the years by the shoulders.

Also included in the task:

Antithesis - opposition.

Gradation - stylistic figure, which consists of an arrangement of words in which each subsequent word contains an increasing or decreasing meaning.

An oxymoron is a combination of directly opposite words in order to show the inconsistency of a phenomenon.

Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration.

Litotes is an artistic understatement.

Periphrasis is the replacement of the name of an object with a description of its essential features. For example: king of beasts (instead of lion).

Outdated words as a figurative device

Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary as a figurative device

Phraseologisms as a figurative device

Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal

Lexical repetition

Syntactic parallelism

Incomplete sentences (ellipsis)