Greek alphabet and pronunciation in Russian. Reading rules in Greek

Ελληνικό αλφάβητο [eliniko alfavito] - Greek alphabet used in the Greek language and in the rather small Greek language group. Despite this, it is one of the most ancient (presumably the 9th century) and studied. The word "Alphabet" we borrowed from the Greeks consists of the names of the first two letters: "alpha" and "Vita"(by analogy, our "ABC" was named: "Az" and "Beeches"). Both modern and ancient Greek Greek alphabets consist of 24 letters: vowels and consonants.

Greek alphabet history

The letters of the Greek alphabet were partially borrowed from the Phoenician consonant type of writing of words (using only consonants). Due to the peculiarity of the Greek language, some symbols denoting consonants began to be used to record vowels. Thus, the Greek alphabet can be considered the first in the history of writing, which consisted of vowels and consonants. Phoenician letters changed not only their styles, but also their names. Initially, all the symbols of the Phoenician recording system had names denoting a word and denoted the initial letter of this word. In the Greek transcription, the words slightly changed their sound, and the semantic load was lost. New symbols have also been added to indicate missing vowel sounds.

Modern Greek alphabet with transcription

(modern greek language)

Ancient Greek alphabet with transcription

(ancient greek language)

Greek alphabet numbers

The symbols of the Greek alphabet were also used in the notation of numbers. Letters in order designated the numbers from 1 to 9, then numbers from 10 to 90, multiples of 10, and then numbers from 100 to 900, multiples of 100. Due to the fact that the characters of the alphabet were not enough to write numbers, the number system was supplemented with symbols:

• ϛ (stigma)
• ϟ (coppa)
• ϡ (sampi)

in its oldest form, it was an exact copy of the Phoenician: the Greeks preserved the same sequence of letters in the alphabet as the Phoenicians, and even the names of the letters were designated by distorted Semitic words.

In the ancient Greek inscriptions, the Semitic direction of writing was also preserved: the signs were written from right to left.
And only in the IV century BC. the Greeks switched to writing from left to right.

This is what the Greeks wrote and read. This is called “- bullish turn (a letter similar to the move of plowing bulls).

Almost all European alphabets... In the West, the alphabet spread through the Greek colonies located in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula.

The alphabet was borrowed from the Greeks by the Romans, and from them it spread throughout all the countries of Western Europe. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. the alphabet influenced the emergence of the Armenian alphabet. In the VI century. the Georgian alphabet arose - part of the Greek with the addition of several letters.

Greeks applied new material for writing - it was parchment made from animal skins. It was more durable than papyrus. The use of leather for writing began from very ancient times in Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, where it was most widespread.

According to legend in the city of Pergamon in the 1st century BC was invented new way receiving material for writing from animal skins.

The oldest pieces of parchment with surviving fragments of texts date back to the 1st century BC, but it was used only from the 2nd century BC. n. e. For making parchment used the skins of sheep, goats, donkeys, calves. The skins were soaked in lime water, the wool was scraped off, pulled over the frame, dried, smoothed with pumice and chalked.

It was durable, had a smooth and light surface. You could write on it from two sides. The parchment was dyed yellow, blue, black, magenta and used for sumptuous manuscripts. On purple, they wrote in gold or silver.

For a thousand years, the parchment book prevailed in Europe, while paper made its triumphant path in Asian countries. Thanks to parchment, a significant number of manuscripts from the early Middle Ages have survived.

In Greece, they used and cera- wooden planks covered with wax. They wrote with a stick - style... "Rotate style", i.e. to erase what was written meant to trim the beauty of the language. Hence the expression "literary style" appeared.

Wax planks were used mainly for notes and for writing letters, but sometimes literary and scientific texts were written on them. Several planks were fastened together with a strap or cord pulled through on one side. This is how the book turned out.

This method of writing became widespread in Rome. Later he penetrated into the countries of medieval Europe. In Paris in the XIII century. there were workshops for the manufacture of wax tablets.

They recited, accompanying themselves in cithara. The singers were held in high esteem. The Greek rulers loved to surround themselves with the most prominent poets and scientists.

The center of Greek culture was the Athenian slave-owning republic with the capital, where the greatest Greek tragedians, Sophocles, Euripides lived. Comedic writer Aristophanes. Famous philosophers Socrates,. In the Athenian Republic, as in other Greek city-states, public education stood at a significant height: the children of all citizens studied in schools.

There were also higher schools in Athens, where young men studied science under the guidance of teachers-philosophers. The most famous were: the school of Plato and the school of Aristotle. Plato's teaching was abstract. Aristotle's teaching was based primarily on the observation of natural phenomena. He read his lectures while walking with his students.

Some of the views and discoveries of Aristotle still amaze scientists. Apparently, some of the writings that have survived to this day under the name of Aristotle are the recordings of his lectures. One of the highest manifestations of Hellenic creativity was the theatrical art. During the heyday of Athenian culture, poets created wonderful comedies and tragedies, many of them in later lists have come down to us. However, Greek culture was placed at the service of only free citizens, the slaves were left on the sidelines. If educated people were found among the slaves, this was a rare exception.

The book of that time was papyrus scroll... delivered from Egypt. The text on the scroll was written in narrow columns, the direction of the lines being parallel to the length of the scroll. When reading, the papyrus tape was gradually rolled from one side to the other so that two columns were simultaneously in the field of view, and the rest of the scroll was rolled up.

? Try rolling a paper scroll and writing on it like you would on papyrus. Is it convenient?

Due to the fact that the papyrus scrolls did not tolerate moisture, which had a destructive effect on them, the original books of that time have not survived. And only the Egyptian and Greek scrolls have survived for two to three millennia in absolutely dry Egyptian sand. Most of the known scrolls have survived as passages, but sometimes these passages are significant.

αА Alpha is the first letter of the alphabet, its literal meaning is "bull" or, more generally, "cattle". Like the corresponding Hebrew letter, Alpha, above all, is interpreted as a symbol of movable property in all its aspects, both material and spiritual. With the advent of minting coins, their value was expressed in the number of heads of cattle - hence the word “capital” itself (from the Latin “caput” - “head”). The esoteric essence of Alpha involves caring for the horned livestock, that is, increasing and wisely using this wealth. Life is a fleeting phenomenon and therefore wealth should be disposed of in such a way that it becomes the property of all and subsequent generations can also enjoy its benefits. Alpha has interesting parallels in the Hebrew and runic alphabets, where the first letters denote the same thing - rich herds of cattle. In the Hebrew alphabet, this is the letter Aleph, denoting the sound "a", in the runic alphabet - Feo, denoting the sound "f". And yet, despite their phonetic difference, in the symbolism of these alphabets there is a large cattle is considered as the most important condition for the existence of society, and in modern understanding this is a certain stage of human development when alphabets appear. In numerical terms, Alpha symbolizes the primary and most important - the primary concern for the maintenance of human life; Gnostic symbolism speaks of the "triple Alpha", the symbolic Holy Trinity. The number of the word "Alpha" in gematria is 532.

βВ Beta is the second letter of the alphabet with provocative and even demonic properties. Numerically, it denotes the number 2; she is next, not the first, and therefore is considered as a violator of unity, and in dualistic religions she is identified with a demonic challenge to the one God. This challenging challenger is often referred to as "another first" (as in modern Sweden), in recognition of the challenging atmosphere created by this second, who always tries to take the first place through competition or overthrow. In Mithraism, the demonic god of the Fall also has the epithet “one more first”. This is Angra Mainyu challenging God and destroying his unity. In Christian terminology, the negative aspect is embodied in the image of the devil. However, this aspect of the Second also carries with it the possibility of reunification. Without the Second, the monad, perfect in itself, is devoid of coherence and thus cannot exist. All religions that acknowledge the existence of a creator of the universe come to terms with this necessity, represented here symbolically by the letter Beta. In addition, some argue that the second quality is not necessarily the diametrical opposite of the original principle. The name "Beta" in gematria corresponds to the numerical value of 308.

γГ Gamma is the third letter of the alphabet. It stands for the number 3 and symbolizes piety and holiness. As a child is born from a father and mother, so a third essence naturally arises from the monad and its antipode. In a general sense, the letter Gamma symbolizes the trinity of the deity, which is found everywhere. For example, the goddess in three forms is a phenomenon known throughout the Mediterranean, as well as throughout continental Europe and even in the north. The Babylonians worshiped the triad of Anu, Enlius, and Ea; the Egyptians honored Isis, Osiris and Horus; Anglo-Saxons worshiped Vauden, Frigga and Tunor, while the Vikings were in awe of Odin, Thor and Balder. In Christian terminology, Gamma denotes the trinity - God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. In terms of esoteric symbolism, Gamma denotes the threefold nature of the process: creation, existence and destruction; beginning, middle and end; birth, life and death. It is the third phase, the phase of the waning moon, leading to the damping of light, that indicates the hidden meaning of a new birth in a new cycle. It is the child, this third entity, who experiences its parents. In the Greek context, Gamma has a more specific meaning, this letter is associated with three goddesses of fate: Clotho, Atropos and Lachesis; Roman parallel - Nonna, Decimus and Morga; the three graces and even the three Prophetic Sisters of the old English tradition. In gematria, Gamma has the number 85.

δД Delta represents the four classical elements of the universe - fire, air, water and earth. For about seven thousand years, since the construction of the first temples of archaic ancient European culture in the Balkans, the quadrangularity has been associated with traces human activity... Quadrangular structures are easier to build than round ones - in accordance with the four sides of the body of any human being: back, face, right and left sides. The delta thus became the first element of human intervention aimed at changing the world in a primitive state. The unusual number 4 is four directions, four horses in a cart known as "quadriga" and (in Christian eschatology) four horsemen of the Apocalypse. This is a symbol of completeness on the material level and the quality of completeness. In gematria, the word "Delta" stands for the number 340.

εΕ Epsilon personifies the spiritual element, which is contained in the material and at the same time is outside it. This is Aeon and Ether, the fifth element, known among the alchemists as "quintessence" (equivalent to "Noivre" in the tradition of the Celtic bards). Whatever it is called, its strength of mind is subtle energy vital activity, "breath of life", known among the Greeks under the name "Pneuma"; on it rests all existence of life (its esoteric number 576). Traditionally, this element is depicted with a pentagram in the form of a five-pointed star. In magical writing, the pentagram thus replaces the letter Epsilon. It contains the sacred proportions of the golden section, one of the three principles of sacred geometry, which were provided for in the design of the most sacred and most beautiful temples. ancient greece such as the Parthenon in Athens and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Epsilon, as an expression of mathematical proportion, is in a mystical connection with Lambda, the eleventh letter of the Greek alphabet. In the gnosis tradition, Epsilon represents the second heaven. In numerical terms, Epsilon means the number 5. In gematria, the digital sum of this word is 445.

ζZ Zeta, the sixth letter of the alphabet, denotes giving gifts to God or sacrifice. This should not be taken literally as killing for the sake of a sacrifice, but rather as an offering of energy to assist in the creative process of creation. In an esoteric sense, Zeta is the seventh letter of the alphabet, since the sixth letter was Digamma (F), removed before the beginning of the classical period and used only as a number. As the seventh and yet the sixth letter, Zeta denotes the formative principle of the cosmos. According to biblical tradition, the universe was created for six days, and the seventh day of rest was meant to be completed. Also, geometrically, the number six is ​​the guiding principle of matter, forming hexagonal lattices that underlie the structure of matter. The six points of the hexagonal lattice are required to place the seventh point inside. The image, equivalent to Zeta, is a pattern associated with the Archangel Michael: six equidistant points located around the seventh. This magic symbol and today can be seen as a protective mark in old English and german houses... Zeta means the number 7, the gematric sum of its name is 216.

ηH This - the seventh letter of the alphabet, rather in number than in a conceptual sense, symbolizes the energy of joy and love. This is the letter of poise - a quality that implies harmony with the surrounding world and the ability to be in the right place at the right time and fully reveal your potential. A more detailed description of the harmony represented by the letter Eta can be found in the pre-Copernican cosmology, which reveals the divine harmony of the seven planets and the seven spheres. Thus, Eta can symbolize the so-called "music of the spheres". Mark the Gnostic placed the letter Eta in the ensemble of the third heaven: "The first heaven sounds Alpha, it is echoed by Ε (Epsilon), and the third Eta ..." In the Christian science of numbers, This represents the desire for improvement, renewal and salvation. But in a digital sense, This means the number 8 - the main number of the Sun. In gematria, the word Eta has the sum of 309 - the number of the god of war Ares and the planet Mars.

θΘ Theta - the eighth letter of the alphabet - means the aspirated "T" sound. Theta symbolizes the eighth, crystal sphere, to which, according to ancient cosmology, fixed stars are attached. Thus, she is a symbol of balance and unification. In the traditional European way of life, Theta symbolizes the octal division of time and space. However, in the numbering system, this letter denotes the number 9, which indicates an esoteric connection between the numbers 8 and 9, and this relationship is emphasized magical properties two luminaries: the sun and the moon. By gematria, numerical value the word "Theta" is 318; this is the number of the sun god Helios.

ι Ι Iota, despite its smallest size, symbolizes destiny. It is dedicated to the goddess of fate Ananka and thus also to the three parks. Ananke is in a gematric relationship with the Great God Pan, since the numerical value of Ananke is 130, and Pan is 131. It follows from this that the smallest letter is a microcosm of all others associated with Pan through complex gematric numerology. After all, symbolically, the smallest part of the universe contains the entire universe at the microcosm level. The letter Iota means the number 10, which is considered the fourth heaven in the Gnostic branch of the Christian faith. In Gematria, the word "Iota" has the number 381, the number of the wind god Aeolus. As a symbol of fate, she acquired impermanence - a quality characteristic of the changeable winds of fate. She is a symbol of insignificance, if something is not even worth an "iota", but when someone tempts fate, not even thinking about what is most important to him, then this seemingly unimportant detail can turn against him himself and bring misfortune.
κ Κ Kappa is considered a letter that brings bad luck, illness, old age and death. According to this property, it is dedicated to the god Cronus. In Mithraism, this tenth letter of the Greek alphabet is associated with the god of evil Angra Mainyu, who, in turn, is likened to a thousand (10x10x10) deadly demons. It is believed that Angra Mainyu is the lord of 10,000 different diseases with which he punishes the human race. On a more abstract level, Kappa is the letter of the time, the bearer of inevitable and unforgiving processes. In this respect, it is related to the Ken rune, which personifies the inexorable process of the fiery element. Kappa means the number 20. In gematria, its name has the number 182.

λΛ Lambda is associated with plant growth and geometric progressions in mathematics that express the basic principle of all organic growth. It is mystically associated with the geometric proportion known as Golden ratio... As the eleventh letter of the Greek alphabet, Lambda represents an ascent of more high level... Mathematically, this is proved by the example of two Lambda progressions: geometric and arithmetic, basic number series ancient Greek mathematics. At a more abstract level, Lambda denotes an increase in number sequences that underlie all physical processes. In the runic alphabet, we find a direct correspondence to this Greek letter- the Lagu rune, which is also associated with growth and denotes the sound "L". Similar characteristics are inherent in the Hebrew letter Lamed. Lambda stands for the number 30, and in gematria its name gives the number 78.

μΜ Mu, the twelfth letter of the alphabet, represents the sacred number 40. This letter is associated with trees - the largest, most powerful and persistent representatives flora... The tree is the symbol of the cosmic axis. It is a link connecting the underground, earthly and heavenly worlds. Its roots grow underground - in the kingdom of Hades. It penetrates the surface of the earthly world, on which humanity lives, and then rushes up to the heavenly empyrean gods and goddesses. The very shape of the letter Mu symbolizes stability and inviolability, enclosure, security and connection between the three states of being. Considering the gematric value of the word "Mu" - 440, its meaning increases and increases, since the number 440 is the sum of the letters in the word "home" ("O OIKOΣ"), the main symbol of protection from the horrors and dangers of the outside world. the twelfth letter, it means all 12 months of the year, the completed cycle of everything living on Earth.

νN Nu is the thirteenth letter. The number 13 has a gloomy semantic connection - in this case, with the witchcraft aspect of the Great Goddess Hecate. The Greeks revered Hecate as the goddess of the night and underworld... There is also a connection with the Egyptian goddess Nut and with the later Scandinavian goddess of the night, Not. Just like her runic counterpart Nid, the letter Nu symbolizes an unpleasant necessity; night darkness as a necessity to light up the day again. The number of this letter is 50, and in gematria its name gives the sum of 450.
ξΞ Xi is the fourteenth letter of the Greek alphabet. According to the esoteric interpretation of the alphabet, this letter represents the stars, as the fifteenth letter represents the sun and the moon, and the sixteenth letter represents Mithra himself. This fourteenth letter can be interpreted according to medieval astrology as stars, or rather, as "15 Stars", which had their own occult signs in medieval astrology. These stars and constellations are extremely significant and important, as they are traditionally attributed to certain qualities and influences. These fixed stars are superior to all others, and their power is beyond question. For a medieval magician who made talismans, individual characteristics each of the 15 stars were the basis of his work. In doing so, he took into account not only the prevailing properties inherent in each individual planet, but also took into account the influence of the members of the star fifteen related to this. In standard astrology, it is believed that these stars also have specific and peculiar properties. As a consequence, they are treated in the same way as the most famous planets. These stars are called: Pleiades, Aldebaran, Algol, Capella, Sirius, Procyon, Regulus, Algorab, Spica, Arcturus, Pole Star, Alfecca, Antares, Vega and Deneb. This letter denotes the number 60, the favorite number of ancient Babylonian astronomy. In Gematria, the name "Xi" has a sum of 615.

OO Omicron is the power of the sun enclosed in a circle, the source of all energy on Earth, the various aspects of which are symbolically represented by the gods Helios and Apollo. The round shape of the letter recalls the appearance of the sun and the eternal essence of light amid cosmic darkness. In a later interpretation, Omicron symbolizes Christ as the bearer of light. On the other hand, Omicron represents the moon - the mirror of the sun. The Gnostics designate the fifth heaven with this letter. It has a numerical value of 70, and in gematria it is 1090.
πП The letter Pi also symbolizes the sun in a blaze of glory, but this time not a disk, but round shape surrounded by sixteen rays, which are identified with all solar deities, including Apollo, Serapis and Christ. More specifically, it is associated with Mithra, whose veneration, according to the Persian Avestan calendar, was dedicated to the sixteenth day of each month. The sun, surrounded by sixteen rays, much later became the property of Christian art, where it is also associated with the name of God (for example, the Royal Collegiate Chapel, Cambridge, see Fig. 8). Pi stands for the number 80; the gematric sum of the word "Pi" is 101.

ρΡ Ro is the seventeenth letter of the Greek alphabet, it represents the creative feminine qualities that are in any thing and are inherent in both sexes - both masculine and feminine. More specifically, this is understood as fertility, the strength of development of the entire plant world and the ability of a living organism to reproduce. Ro symbolizes the unlimited adaptability and mobility that lead to "becoming", that is, creation in all its aspects. Thus, the letter Ro, as it were, anticipates the meaning of its runic counterpart Rad, also associated with movement and fluidity. Arithmetically, this letter stands for the number 100; the gematric sum of its name is 170, the same as the Greek word "O AMHN" - "amen", "so be it."
σΣ Sigma is the Lord of Death; in the Greek pantheon, she is the symbol of Hermes Psychopomp, the guide of souls to the afterlife. Being the eighteenth in a row, it is associated with the mysterious eighteenth rune of the Scandinavian tradition, as well as with the esoteric properties of the eighteenth letter of the Gaelic alphabet. In the Mithraic tradition, she symbolizes Rashna, the second brother of Mithra, the god of the underworld. It stands for the number 200, and the gematric value of its name is 254.

τΤ Tau represents the microcosm, and in a narrower sense - the lunar aspect of man. The Tau cross has often served as the main pictographic form of the human body. It appears to be derived from the ancient Egyptian mark of the Ankh, the symbol eternal life used in magic as an amulet against infertility. In Christian iconography, Tau represents the cross. It can be both the copper serpent of Moses, and the Old Testament rod of Aaron - "antiheroes" Old Testament that foreshadowed the appearance of a "hero", that is, the Cross of the Savior. Naturally, Tau also represents the cross on which Christ was crucified, since the "Tau" form is the original form of the crosses used by the Romans for crucifixion. It is this shape of the cross that can be seen in many medieval and Renaissance depictions of the crucifixion of Christ and two robbers. In esoteric Christian symbolism, the three ends of the letter Tau represent the trinity. The arithmetic value of Tau is 300; according to the rules of gematria, this letter represents the goddess of the moon Selena (ΣEΛHNH), whose name has a numerical value of 301. The gematric value of the word "Tau" is 701, which traditionally corresponds to the number of the so-called "Chrismon" - the monogram of Christ, consisting of the letters Chi and Ro, which add up to 700.
υY Upsilon - the twentieth letter of the alphabet - stands for water and flow properties. Here, unlike the creative generating fluidity of Ro, these qualities are associated with the element of water. Upsilon presents properties that are similar to streams of water and are difficult to define, but at the same time are essential for the continuation of life. The number 20 in Greek mysticism is also associated with water. Plato's geometric body called "icosahedron", representing the element of water in esoteric geometry, has twenty facets. The Gnostic tradition associates the letter Upsilon with the "sixth heaven". Its arithmetic value is 400. In gematria, the name "Ypsilon" is equivalent to 1260.

phi phi is the phallus, the male principle of reproduction. Phi stands for the number 500. In gematria, this number is identified with the mystical sheath (ENΔYMA) - the manifestation of the spiritual element in the world of forms. The letter is also a representation of the word "to Pan" - that is, "all." According to Greek tradition, it symbolizes the great god Pan - the one who binds everything that exists into a single natural integrity. His name contains the number 500, denoted by the letter Phi; according to gematria, this number is equivalent to the number of the universe (501). The gematric value of phi is 510.

χX Chi is the twenty-second letter of the alphabet, representing space, and on the human level - private property. Chi number - 600; this number is equivalent to the gematric sums of the Greek words "Cosmos" (KOΣMOΣ) and "deity" ("O THEOTNΣ) (the latter is the sacred component of the former.) Chi is an indicator of ownership that defines the boundaries of what has already been appropriated. It is also a symbol of what is presented. a gift that connects a person with a person in the horizontal plane, and if viewed vertically, it is a link in the unity of the gods with humanity. Only in its form, but not phonetically, the letter Hi is related to the Gifu rune (in the letter X, phonetically "G") , which symbolizes giving gifts to the gods or receiving gifts from them.In Gematria, the word "Chi" is equivalent to the number 610.

ψΨ Psi is the twenty-third letter of the alphabet, denoting the heavenly light, embodied in the sky god Zeus. It is also of secondary importance, i.e. daylight more specifically, the climax of noon. Hence, this letter corresponds to the moment of illumination, clear and accurate vision. It denotes the number 700 - the gematric sum of the Christian monogram Chi-Ro, symbolizing the heavenly radiance of Christ. The gematric value of the word "Psi" is 710, which corresponds to the words "piston" (ПIΣТОN) ("faithful") and "pneuma agion" (ПNEYMA AGION) ("Holy Spirit").

ωΩ Omega is the twenty-fourth and last letter of the alphabet, denoting wealth and abundance, successful completion of affairs. This is the apotheosis, the seventh heaven of the Gnostics. Its numerical value is 800, the equivalent of the words "pistis" (1ШЛТС) ("faith") and "curios" (KYПIOΣ) ("lord"). In gematria, the word "Omega" gives the sum of 849, which is equivalent to the word "scheme" (ΣXHMA) ("plan"). Thus, Omega is the embodiment of faith and divine plan in both pagan and Christian interpretations of the word "Lord", be it Zeus or Jesus.

There are 24 letters in Greek. If you look at the table below, you will find 3 letters "and" and 2 more letters "O"... They read the same. Earlier in ancient Greek, each "and", for example, was read differently. In modern modern Greek language, only a different spelling of these letters has survived, and they are all read the same.

Also in the Russian language there are almost all the sounds of the Greek language, except for the sounds δ , ζ (if you are familiar with English, you will find similarities between these sounds in English) and γ (read as Ukrainian "G", so for Russian speakers it will not be difficult to pronounce it).

I would also like to draw attention to the stress. It always is put in words (sometimes there are words in which the stress is not put, for example: λαη , θαη , γθοι , ληοσς , but there are very few of them). These are mostly monosyllabic words. It is even considered a mistake not to stress.

A very important point in Greek: the letter "O" you need to pronounce it without replacing it as in Russian with "a"... For example, in Russian the word "milk" it says like "MALAKO"... In the Greek language "O" always reads like "O"(imagine that you are from the Vologda region).

Reading letter combinations

In the Greek language, there are quite a lot of letter combinations (that is, sounds obtained from a combination of 2, 3 and even 4 letters). There are several reasons for this. The first is, again, a story drawn from the ancient Greek language, when the sounds were read differently than in the modern Greek language. Their spelling has been preserved. The second reason is simply the lack of letters in the alphabet. 24 letters seemed to the Greeks insufficient to express philosophical thoughts. Therefore, they came up with additional sounds, combining existing letters with each other.

Note! The stress on combinations of 2 vowels is placed on the second letter. If the stress falls on the first letter of the combination, then each letter is read separately

Features of the pronunciation of some consonants in words

Letters γ , κ , λ , χ , ν soften if followed by sounds "And", "e" (ι , η , υ , ει , οι , ε , αι ).

For instance:

γ η (ground), γ ελώ (laugh), κ ενό (general, emptiness), κ ήπος (garden), γ υναίκα (woman, wife), χ ίλια (thousand), ό χ ι (no), κ ιλό (kilogram).

σ reads like ζ if σ is followed by the following consonants: β , γ , δ , μ , ρ , μπ , ντ , γκ .

For instance:

Ι σ ραήλ (Israel), κό σ μος (space, people), κουρα σ μένος (tired), σ βήνω (turn off), ι σ λάμ (Islam), ο άντρα ς μου (my husband).

All doubled consonants are read as one.

For instance:

Σά ββ ατο (Saturday), ε κκ λησία (church), παρά λλ ηλος (parallel), γρα μμ άριο (gram), Ά νν α (Anna), ι ππ όδρομος (hippodrome), Κα σσ άνδρα (Kassandra), Α ττ ική (Attica).

This rule does not apply to the combination γγ (see reading rule above).

Greek writing belongs to the alphabetical category, goes back to the Phoenician writing. The oldest written monuments date back to the 14th-12th centuries. BC e., written in syllabic Cretan-Mycenaean script (Linear A, Linear B).
It is considered that Greek alphabet originated in the 8th century. BC e. The first written monuments date back to the 8th century. BC e. (Dipylonian inscription from Athens, as well as an inscription from Thera). By outward appearance and the set of characters most closely related to Phrygian alphabetic writing (8th century BC). In the Greek language, in contrast to the Semitic, consonant (only consonants are reflected in the letter) prototype, in addition to graphemes to denote consonants, graphemes first appeared to denote vowel sounds, which can be considered a new stage in the development of writing.

Before the emergence of alphabetic writing, the Hellenes used syllabic linear writing (Cretan letter, included linear letter A, which has not yet been deciphered, linear letter B, letter of the Phaistos disc).
The letter based on the Greek alphabet was divided into 2 varieties: Eastern Greek and Western Greek writing, which, in turn, were divided into a number of local varieties, which differed in their characteristics in the transmission of individual characters. East Greek writing later developed into classical ancient Greek and Byzantine writing, became the basis of Coptic, Gothic, Armenian, to some extent Georgian writing, Slavic Cyrillic. Western Greek writing became the basis for Etruscan, and therefore Latin and runic Germanic writing.

Initially, the Greek alphabet consisted of 27 letters, and in this form it took shape by the 5th century. BC e. based on the Ionian variety of Greek writing. The direction of writing is from left to right. The signs “stigma” (ς), now transmitted through στ, “koppa” (¢) and “sampi” (¥) were used only to denote numbers and later fell out of use. Also, in some local variants (in the Peloponnese and Boeotia), the symbol  "digamma" was used to denote the phoneme [w].
Traditionally, the ancient Greek, and after it the modern Greek alphabet, has 24 letters:

In theory, two types of pronunciation are distinguished: Erasmus (ητακιστική προφορά, it is believed that it was characteristic in the classical period of the use of the ancient Greek language, now it is used only in teaching) and Reuchlin's (ιωτακιστική προφορά). Pronunciation in modern Greek is Reichlin. Its main feature is the presence of several options for transmitting the same sound.
There are diphthongs in Greek:

All diphthongs are pronounced in one syllable. If a vowel follows after ει, οι, ι, υ, such a combination is also pronounced in one syllable: πιάνο [piano] (piano), ποιες [song] (who). Such diphthongs are called improper (καταχρηστικός δίφθογγος).
The letter Γ followed by ει, οι, ι, υ, ε, which, in turn, is followed by a vowel, is not pronounced: γυαλιά [yal΄ya] (glasses), γεύση [΄yevsi] (taste). Γ before the back-lingual (γ, κ, χ) is pronounced as [n]: άγγελος [΄angelos] (angel), αγκαλιά [angalya] (hugs), άγχος [anhos] (stress).

In addition, the following consonant combinations that convey the sounds of the Greek language began to be used in the New Greek language: τσ (τσάϊ [c "ai] but: έτσι [" eti]), τζ (τζάμι [dz "ami]), μπ (mb in the middle of the original Greek word: αμπέλι [amb "eli] or b at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words: μπορώ [bor" o]), ντ (nd in the middle of the original Greek word: άντρας ["andras] or d at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words : ντύνω [q "ino]), γκ (ng in the middle of the original Greek word: ανάγκη [an" angi] or g at the beginning of the word and in borrowed words: γκολ [head]).

Double letters ξ ψ always replace a combination of consonants κσ, πσ. Exception: εκστρατεία (campaign). The ς sign is used only at the end of a word. The σ sign is never used at the end of a word.
The word can end with a vowel, ν or ς. The only exceptions are some interjections and borrowed words.

Additional Information:

Peculiarities:
The phonetic system consists of 5 vowel phonemes, opposed in ancient Greek in longitude / brevity (a, e, i, o, u). In modern Greek, such a division is irrelevant. Nearby vowels merge into a long vowel or form a diphthong. Diphthongs are divided into proper (the second element is necessarily ι, υ) and improper (combination of a long vowel with i). The stress in the ancient Greek language is musical, mobile, of three types: (sharp, dull and clothed). In modern Greek, stress is only one kind - acute. In the consonant system of the modern Greek language, new sounds have developed: labiodental [ντ], interdental voiced [δ] and voiceless [θ], which cause the greatest difficulties in their pronunciation.

Morphology is characterized by the presence in the nominal parts of speech of the name of 3 genera (masculine, feminine, middle), their indicators are also articles (definite and indefinite: the indefinite article occurs and fully corresponds to the numeral one), 2 numbers (singular, plural, in ancient Greek there was also a dual number to denote paired objects such as "eyes, hands, twins"), 5 cases (nominative, vocative, genitive, dative, accusative: in the ancient Greek language there were remnants of other cases, for example, instrumental, locative, and so on; in the modern Greek language there is no dative case), 3 nominal declensions (on -a, on -o, on other vowels, as well as consonants). The verb had 4 moods (indicative, conjunctiva, optative and imperative), 3 voices (active, passive, middle, in modern Greek the medial with inflection fully corresponds to the passive one), 2 types of conjugation (in -ω and in -μι, in modern Greek division into conjugations carried out by the presence or absence of stress on the last syllable of the verb).

Groups of times: in ancient Greek, they are divided into main (present, future, perfect) and historical (aorist, perfect and pluperfect). In the modern Greek language, the division occurs at the present, long times and inclination (παρατατικός, συνεχής μέλλοντας, συνεχής υποτακτική, συνεχής προστακτική), cross-sectional and time of inclination (αόριστος, απλός μέλλοντας, απλή υποτακτική, απλή προστακτική), elapsed time (παρακείμενος, υπερσυντέλικος, τετελεσμένος μέλλοντας). In the system of verb tenses of the modern Greek language, new analytical models of the formation of complex tenses (perfect, pluperfect, future) have developed. The system of formation of participles has been simplified, but a large number of them are used in a frozen form, while syllable increments or reduplications are often used in their formation.

The syntactic system is characterized by a free order of words in a sentence (the predominant sequence in the main sentence is SVO (subject-verb-object)) with a developed system of composition and subordination within a complex sentence. Particles play an important role (especially since the infinitive has been abolished in the modern Greek language, which is replaced by indicative forms with the corresponding particles) and prepositions. The system of word-formation means includes a developed system of prefixes (derived from adverbs-prepositions), suffixes. Composition is used more actively than in Russian.

The Greek language has a very rich and developed lexical system. The vocabulary structure includes several layers: pre-Greek (of Pelasgian origin), original Greek, borrowed, consisting of Semitic and Latin layers. In the modern Greek language there is a large number of borrowings from Romance (mainly French and especially Italian), Germanic (English), Slavic (including from Russian) languages. A huge layer of vocabulary is made up of Turkish borrowings. Reverse borrowing is also worth mentioning when Greek morphemes previously borrowed by others foreign languages return to Greek to name recently invented objects and phenomena (for example, "telephone").
Some features unite the Modern Greek language with other Balkan languages ​​(Romanian, Serbian Bulgarian): combining the functions of the genitive and dative cases, the absence of the infinitive and its replacement with forms subjunctive mood, complex (analytical) forms of the future tense and the subjunctive mood. Elements characteristic of all Balkan languages ​​in the syntax are the excessive doubling of direct and indirect complement, the use of pronominal repetitions, which cause great difficulty for users of other languages.

In modern Greek, word order is mostly free. However, pronouns often lose this freedom: possessive pronoun always placed after the noun being defined, short forms of personal pronouns must be placed immediately before the verb in a specific order (first genitive, then accusative). For possessive and personal pronouns, there is a harmonious system of short and full forms. The full form is mobile, but it is used strictly in certain cases: after prepositions; for emphatic highlighting of pronouns together with short form; on one's own.