To narrow your search results, you can refine your query by specifying the fields to search for. The list of fields is presented above. For example:
You can search by several fields at the same time:
Logical operators
The default operator is AND.
Operator AND means that the document must match all elements in the group:
research development
Operator OR means that the document must match one of the values in the group:
study OR development
Operator NOT excludes documents containing this element:
study NOT development
Search type
When writing a request, you can specify the way in which the phrase will be searched. Four methods are supported: search with morphology, without morphology, search for a prefix, search for a phrase.
By default, the search is based on morphology.
To search without morphology, just put a dollar sign in front of the words in the phrase:
$ study $ development
To search for a prefix, you need to put an asterisk after the request:
study *
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" research and development "
Search by synonyms
To include the word synonyms in the search results, put a hash " #
"before a word or before an expression in parentheses.
When applied to one word, up to three synonyms will be found for it.
When applied to a parenthesized expression, a synonym will be appended to each word if found.
Cannot be combined with non-morphology search, prefix search, or phrase search.
# study
Grouping
In order to group search phrases, you need to use brackets. This allows you to control the boolean logic of the request.
For example, you need to make a request: find documents whose author is Ivanov or Petrov, and the title contains the words research or development:
Approximate word search
For an approximate search, you need to put a tilde " ~ "at the end of a word from a phrase. For example:
bromine ~
The search will find words such as "bromine", "rum", "prom", etc.
You can additionally specify the maximum number of possible edits: 0, 1 or 2. For example:
bromine ~1
By default, 2 edits are allowed.
Proximity criterion
To search by proximity, you need to put a tilde " ~ "at the end of a phrase. For example, to find documents with the words research and development within 2 words, use the following query:
" research development "~2
Expression Relevance
Use " ^
"at the end of the expression, and then indicate the level of relevance of this expression in relation to the rest.
The higher the level, the more relevant the expression is.
For example, in this expression, the word "research" is four times more relevant than the word "development":
study ^4 development
By default, the level is 1. Allowed values are a positive real number.
Interval search
To indicate the interval in which the value of a field should be located, you should specify the boundary values in brackets, separated by the operator TO.
Lexicographic sorting will be performed.
Such a query will return results with an author ranging from Ivanov to Petrov, but Ivanov and Petrov will not be included in the result.
To include a value in an interval, use square brackets. Use curly braces to exclude a value.
Francis Rapp
"The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation: from Otto the Great to Charles V"
In memory of my mentor Robert Folz
Introduction
As I present these pages to the reader's judgment, I feel some excitement. The topic covered in the book is so complex that it may even seem boring to some. But how can you present it clearly, without going into excesses and without distorting reality? To lay alleys of the French garden in the forest, you will have to cut down so many beautiful trees!
Indeed, the history of the German Holy Roman Empire is woven from paradoxes. Was this empire really Sacred? She began to be considered such from the moment when her rulers accepted the papacy. Was this empire Roman, if the Eternal City was considered its capital in the strict sense of the word for only a short time, unfortunately for those who made such an attempt? Finally, this empire could not be considered purely German. By its definition, it had to be all-embracing, to stand above all the peoples subject to it. Of course, the connection between the empire and Germany was very strong. The Germans perceived themselves as a single nation, because, having long left their lands in pursuit of the idea of creating a great empire, they realized their community. However, the king they elected was called not the king of the Germanic peoples, but the Roman king, since he was supposed to be emperor, just as the son of the French emperor Napoleon was one day to become the ruler of Rome. The German kingdom and the supranational empire are so closely related that in the German language there is only one word - Reich - to denote both of these concepts, in Latin, on the contrary, they distinguish kingdom and empire.
If the logic of historical events seems to us contradictory, then this is because we do not perceive history as something integral, but rather seek in it those connections with some basic, core idea, “one of the dominant themes of the formation of mankind”. The core idea inherited by the Roman intelligentsia from the Greek philosophers was the community of people in the universal sense, the community, the unity and protection of which was ensured by the state created by the Romans. After Constantine adopted Christianity, the Roman Empire ( orbis romanus) turned into a Christian empire ( orbis christianus), whose patron was God, and the governor on earth was the emperor, who combined political and religious power. When hordes of barbarians destroyed the Western Roman Empire, her idealized image became even more vivid. In a world where unbridled power and brutality dictated their laws, the memory of the rule of law was maintained as a guarantee of a better future. Thus was born "the myth of the Roman Christian community, which acquired the territory it had long dreamed of, and a single faith." The clergy fully supported this idea, since their teachings were directed to the past, which seemed to them especially beautiful for the reason that weapons in those days, as they believed, served only a just cause. In a society now ruled by a military force, they felt defenseless. It was not in their power to revive the empire. And only active, powerful, shrewd and ambitious rulers could be imbued with this myth and bring it to life. Or, more correctly, to try to do it, since the task was not easy. Difficult political conditions did not allow to act freely, building a state that only vaguely resembled an empire, which always needed strong, knowledgeable people with exceptional abilities. These qualities, unfortunately, were not inherent in everyone and were manifested in everyone in different ways. Some rulers, succumbing to impulse, went to extremes in their quest to realize this utopia. For others, more pragmatic, it was not the size of the empire that was more important, but its power. The deeds of each of them bore the imprint of their personality. The history of the empire thus became the history of its emperors.
The most famous of them, Charlemagne, it would seem, should not appear in the gallery of portraits that we are about to present to you. The Holy Empire was founded in 962, about a century and a half after his death. However, both Otto and all of his successors strove to follow in his footsteps. They all wished to ascend the throne in the court church in Aachen and be crowned in St. Peter's in Rome, like Charlemagne, whose coronation took place on Christmas Day 800. Memories of him turned into a legend, giving the dream of a great empire another feature that has passed through the centuries - the idea of the chosen people, who are destined to gain unity by Providence. After the Romans, this destiny passed to the Franks. Moreover, it became impossible to claim an empire without being a descendant of the most noble Frankish families. The empire almost inevitably split in two. Two cities embodied her duality - Rome first, but Aachen to the same extent.
And although the memory of Charlemagne survived centuries, the empire he created turned out to be short-lived. In 843 it broke up. Never again will the lands of the East Francs, present-day Germany, and the West Francs, present-day France, unite. In a short time, what was formerly a single community of the West, disintegrated into countless principalities and kingdoms. At the beginning of the 10th century, the imperial crown was only an adornment put on display by the small landowners. The last time she was overthrown in 924, Otto caught her on February 2, 962. He, the ruler of East Francia, was also subject to Lombardy and Lorraine, whose lands stretched to the Meuse. The victory over the Hungarian conquerors significantly strengthened his influence, and he considered that it was he who was worthy to revive the empire. His possessions were very extensive, but the means to keep them in subjection remained fairly average. The power of the Carolingians east of the Rhine was limited, and in all other lands, its mechanism was poorly established. The dukes who elevated Otto to the throne were by no means uncomplaining executors of his will. The ethnic diversity of the peoples that make up the empire made it difficult to govern it, and even the peoples who spoke the same Germanic language did not make up a single nation. To replenish his treasury, Otto used his power as emperor. Like Charlemagne and all Christian emperors, he was considered God's deputy on earth. Both spiritual and secular power was concentrated in his hands, so he could count on the full support of the Church. The clergy, on the other hand, constituted a certain frame of society, more like an organism devoid of nerves and bones. Many problems and dramatic situations hindered the development of this structure, which still had to endure severe trials, but the symbiosis of religion and politics proved to be viable. Otto's successors did their best to maintain such a system. She contributed to the rapid development of the empire and allowed it to reach its peak in the middle of the 10th century.
Later, this magnificent structure was shaken. The popes realized that they were responsible to the entire Christian world and that serious abuses were undermining it. To change the situation, complete freedom of action was required. It was not enough to put at the head of the empire some secular ruler who would constantly interfere in the affairs of the church. The situation in which the emperor would claim the role of the new Messiah and appoint bishops according to his opinion was absolutely unacceptable. What annoyed the pope most of all was that the emperor had unshakable power. The conflict was inevitable; the fight became merciless. The unhealthy situation in the state threatened him with death. After half a century of bitter struggle, an agreement was reached. The empire emerged from the crisis significantly weakened. The prelates ceased to be officials, turning into vassals. The state no longer had the right to demand absolute submission from them. Friedrich Hohenstaufen, nicknamed Barbarossa, learned a lesson from these changes and introduced a well-organized feudal system, which became one of the pillars on which the monarchy rested. The clergy occupied their niche in it, and the empire began to be called Sacred. But Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the riches that abounded in Italy. The marriage of his son Henry VI with the heiress of the Normans in Sicily was supposed to provide Hohenstaufen with power on the peninsula. This decision was taken despite the desire of the Lombard cities for independence, with which the popes, who did not want to fall into the steel tongs, entered into a lasting alliance. The premature death of Henry VI and the troublesome times that followed allowed the Holy See to achieve unprecedented opportunities, leaving the emperor only the rights of the heir to Peter. Taking the Sicilian state as a basis, inherited from his mother, Barbarossa's grandson Frederick II, on the contrary, declared himself a full-fledged ruler, "the embodiment of the law on earth." The fierce confrontation resumed with renewed vigor, but, despite mutual efforts, it led nowhere. Frederick II remained invincible, but in 1250 he was also struck down by an illness. The news of his death served as a signal for unrest. Everything was destroyed almost at one moment, and complete anarchy ensued, which lasted almost twenty years. The puppet emperors did not have the strength to end this.
Francis Rapp
"The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation: from Otto the Great to Charles V"
In memory of my mentor Robert Folz
Introduction
As I present these pages to the reader's judgment, I feel some excitement. The topic covered in the book is so complex that it may even seem boring to some. But how can you present it clearly, without going into excesses and without distorting reality? To lay alleys of the French garden in the forest, you will have to cut down so many beautiful trees!
Indeed, the history of the German Holy Roman Empire is woven from paradoxes. Was this empire really Sacred? She began to be considered such from the moment when her rulers accepted the papacy. Was this empire Roman, if the Eternal City was considered its capital in the strict sense of the word for only a short time, unfortunately for those who made such an attempt? Finally, this empire could not be considered purely German. By its definition, it had to be all-embracing, to stand above all the peoples subject to it. Of course, the connection between the empire and Germany was very strong. The Germans perceived themselves as a single nation, because, having long left their lands in pursuit of the idea of creating a great empire, they realized their community. However, the king they elected was called not the king of the Germanic peoples, but the Roman king, since he was supposed to be emperor, just as the son of the French emperor Napoleon was one day to become the ruler of Rome. The German kingdom and the supranational empire are so closely related that in the German language there is only one word - Reich - to denote both of these concepts, in Latin, on the contrary, they distinguish kingdom and empire.
If the logic of historical events seems to us contradictory, then this is because we do not perceive history as something integral, but rather seek in it those connections with some basic, core idea, “one of the dominant themes of the formation of mankind”. The core idea inherited by the Roman intelligentsia from the Greek philosophers was the community of people in the universal sense, the community, the unity and protection of which was ensured by the state created by the Romans. After Constantine adopted Christianity, the Roman Empire ( orbis romanus) turned into a Christian empire ( orbis christianus), whose patron was God, and the governor on earth was the emperor, who combined political and religious power. When hordes of barbarians destroyed the Western Roman Empire, her idealized image became even more vivid. In a world where unbridled power and brutality dictated their laws, the memory of the rule of law was maintained as a guarantee of a better future. Thus was born "the myth of the Roman Christian community, which acquired the territory it had long dreamed of, and a single faith." The clergy fully supported this idea, since their teachings were directed to the past, which seemed to them especially beautiful for the reason that weapons in those days, as they believed, served only a just cause. In a society now ruled by a military force, they felt defenseless. It was not in their power to revive the empire. And only active, powerful, shrewd and ambitious rulers could be imbued with this myth and bring it to life. Or, more correctly, to try to do it, since the task was not easy. Difficult political conditions did not allow to act freely, building a state that only vaguely resembled an empire, which always needed strong, knowledgeable people with exceptional abilities. These qualities, unfortunately, were not inherent in everyone and were manifested in everyone in different ways. Some rulers, succumbing to impulse, went to extremes in their quest to realize this utopia. For others, more pragmatic, it was not the size of the empire that was more important, but its power. The deeds of each of them bore the imprint of their personality. The history of the empire thus became the history of its emperors.
The most famous of them, Charlemagne, it would seem, should not appear in the gallery of portraits that we are about to present to you. The Holy Empire was founded in 962, about a century and a half after his death. However, both Otto and all of his successors strove to follow in his footsteps. They all wished to ascend the throne in the court church in Aachen and be crowned in St. Peter's in Rome, like Charlemagne, whose coronation took place on Christmas Day 800. Memories of him turned into a legend, giving the dream of a great empire another feature that has passed through the centuries - the idea of the chosen people, who are destined to gain unity by Providence. After the Romans, this destiny passed to the Franks. Moreover, it became impossible to claim an empire without being a descendant of the most noble Frankish families. The empire almost inevitably split in two. Two cities embodied her duality - Rome first, but Aachen to the same extent.
And although the memory of Charlemagne survived centuries, the empire he created turned out to be short-lived. In 843 it broke up. Never again will the lands of the East Francs, present-day Germany, and the West Francs, present-day France, unite. In a short time, what was formerly a single community of the West, disintegrated into countless principalities and kingdoms. At the beginning of the 10th century, the imperial crown was only an adornment put on display by the small landowners. The last time she was overthrown in 924, Otto caught her on February 2, 962. He, the ruler of East Francia, was also subject to Lombardy and Lorraine, whose lands stretched to the Meuse. The victory over the Hungarian conquerors significantly strengthened his influence, and he considered that it was he who was worthy to revive the empire. His possessions were very extensive, but the means to keep them in subjection remained fairly average. The power of the Carolingians east of the Rhine was limited, and in all other lands, its mechanism was poorly established. The dukes who elevated Otto to the throne were by no means uncomplaining executors of his will. The ethnic diversity of the peoples that make up the empire made it difficult to govern it, and even the peoples who spoke the same Germanic language did not make up a single nation. To replenish his treasury, Otto used his power as emperor. Like Charlemagne and all Christian emperors, he was considered God's deputy on earth. Both spiritual and secular power was concentrated in his hands, so he could count on the full support of the Church. The clergy, on the other hand, constituted a certain frame of society, more like an organism devoid of nerves and bones. Many problems and dramatic situations hindered the development of this structure, which still had to endure severe trials, but the symbiosis of religion and politics proved to be viable. Otto's successors did their best to maintain such a system. She contributed to the rapid development of the empire and allowed it to reach its peak in the middle of the 10th century.