In the morning the Queen Mother came first. In the king's bedroom she was met only by Mary Stuart, pale and tired: she had spent the whole night at the sick bed. The Duchess of Guise and the ladies of the court, who replaced each other, were always with her. The young king was sleeping. Neither the Duke nor the Cardinal had yet arrived. The church minister turned out to be more decisive than the soldier and that night he used all his energy to convince his brother to become king, but his efforts led to nothing. Balafre knew that the Estates General was already assembled and that he was threatened with a battle with the Constable Montmorency, and found that circumstances did not allow him to exercise power now: he therefore refused to arrest the King of Navarre, the Queen Mother, the Chancellor, the Cardinal of Tournon, both Gondi, Ruggeri and Biraghu, believing that such violence would inevitably lead to rebellion. He decided that he could carry out his brother’s plans only if Francis II remained alive.
The deepest silence reigned in the king's bedroom. Catherine, accompanied by Madame Fiesco, approached the bed. She looked at her son, and her face depicted grief played out with great skill. Putting a handkerchief to her eyes, she went into the recess of the window, where Madame Fiesco brought her an armchair. From there, the Queen Mother began to closely monitor everything that was happening in the courtyard.
Catherine had an agreement with the Cardinal of Tournon that if the constable was able to enter the city safely, the cardinal would appear accompanied by both Gondis, and if he failed, he would come alone. At nine o'clock in the morning, both Lorraine princes, together with all the nobles who remained in the hall, went to the king. The captain on duty warned them that Ambroise Paré had just arrived there along with Chaplin and three other doctors invited by Catherine. All four hated Ambroise.
A few minutes later, the richly decorated courtroom began to look exactly the same as the guardhouse in Blois on the day when the Duke of Guise was appointed supreme commander of the kingdom and when Christophe was tortured, with the only difference that then the royal chambers were filled with joy and love, while while sadness and death now reigned in them, and the Lorraineers felt that power was slipping out of their hands.
The ladies-in-waiting of both queens, divided into two camps, positioned themselves at opposite corners of the large fireplace, where a bright fire was blazing. The hall was full of courtiers. The news spread by someone about Ambroise's bold attempt to save the king's life brought all the nobles who had the right to be there to the palace, and they crowded in the courtyard and on the stairs of the courtroom. The courtiers were filled with anxiety. The sight of the scaffold erected for the Prince of Condé directly opposite the Franciscan monastery shocked everyone. People spoke quietly among themselves, and just as in Blois, the serious mixed with the frivolous, the empty with the important. The courtiers had already begun to get used to unrest, to changes, to armed attacks, to uprisings, to unexpected coups that filled those long years during which the Valois dynasty was fading away, no matter how hard Catherine tried to save it. The rooms adjoining the royal bedchamber, guarded by two armed soldiers, two pages and the captain of the Scottish guard, were dead silent. Antoine Bourbon, who was under arrest at his residence, seeing that everyone had left him, understood what hopes the court cherished. Having learned about the preparations made overnight for his brother’s execution, he was deeply saddened.
In the courtroom, near the fireplace, stood one of the most noble and significant people of his time, Chancellor L'Hopital, in a simple ermine-trimmed robe and in the velvet cap due to his rank. This brave man, seeing that his patrons were preparing a rebellion, went over to the side of Catherine, who in his eyes personified the throne, and, risking his life, went to Ekuan to confer with the constable. No one dared to bring him out of the thoughts in which he was immersed. Robertet, the Secretary of State, two Marshals of France, Vielleville and Saint-André, the Keeper of the Seal, stood near the Chancellor. None of the courtiers allowed themselves to laugh, but in their conversation sarcastic remarks were heard every now and then, coming mainly from the lips of the opponents of the Guises.
The Cardinal finally managed to arrest the Scotsman, the murderer of President Minard, and the case began to be sorted out in Tours. At the same time, many compromised nobles were thrown into the prisons of the castle of Blois and the castle of Tours in order to instill fear in the rest of the nobility, who were no longer afraid of anything. Overwhelmed by a rebellious spirit and imbued with the consciousness of their former equality with the king, this nobility began to seek support in the Reformation. But the prisoners of the Blois prison managed to escape, and due to some fatal combination of circumstances, the prisoners of the Tours prison followed their example.
Madam,” said the Cardinal of Chatillon to Madame Fiesco, “if you are interested in the fate of the prisoners of Tours, then know that they are in great danger.”
Hearing these words, the Chancellor turned to the ladies of the Queen Mother's court.
Yes, young Deveau, the horse-master of the Prince of Condé, who was in the Tours prison and who escaped from there, made a very cruel joke. He is said to have written the following note to the Duke and Cardinal:
“We heard that your prisoners escaped from Blois prison. This outraged us so much that we set off after them: as soon as we catch them, we will deliver them to you.”
Although this joke was in the style of the Cardinal of Chatillon, the chancellor looked at the speaker with a stern look. At that moment, loud voices were heard from the king's bedchamber. Both marshals, Roberts and the chancellor went there, because it was not only about the life and death of the king - the whole court already knew about the danger that threatened the chancellor, Catherine and their supporters. Therefore, deep silence reigned around. Ambroise examined the king, he found that there were all the indications for the operation and that if it was not done now, Francis II could die any minute. As soon as the duke and cardinal entered, Pare explained to them the reasons that caused the king's illness, and, arguing in favor of immediate trepanation of the skull as a last resort, he began to wait for the doctors' orders.
What! Hole my son's head like a board with such a terrible tool! - exclaimed Catherine de Medici. - No, Ambroise, I won’t allow this!
The doctors began to confer. However, Catherine’s words were spoken so loudly that they were heard in the next room, and that was exactly what she needed.
But what to do if there is no other remedy? - said Mary Stuart, bursting into tears.
Ambroise! - exclaimed Catherine. - Remember that you are responsible for the life of the king with your head.
“We do not agree with what Mr. Ambroise is proposing,” all three doctors said. - You can save the king by injecting medicine into his ear, which will draw out all the pus.
The Duke, who had been carefully watching Catherine's expression, approached her and led her to the window.
Your Majesty,” he said, “you must want the death of your son, you are in cahoots with our enemies, and it all began in Blois.” This morning Councilor Violet told your furrier's son that Prince Condé was about to be beheaded. This young man, despite the fact that under torture he stubbornly denied any connection with the Prince of Condé, passing by his window, said goodbye to him with a nod of his head. When your unfortunate associate was tortured, you looked at him with truly royal indifference. Now you want to prevent the salvation of your eldest son. This makes us think that the death of the Dauphin, after which the late king, your husband, ascended the throne, was not a natural death and that Montecuculli was yours...
Mister Chancellor! - exclaimed Catherine, and at her sign Madame Fiesco opened the double door.
Then the royal bedchamber appeared before everyone's eyes; there lay the young king, deathly pale, with sunken cheeks and dull eyes; the only word he kept mumbling incessantly was the name “Maria”; he did not let go of the hand of the young queen, who was crying. The Duchess of Guise stood near the bed, frightened by Catherine’s courage; both Lorraine, equally alarmed, were near the Queen Mother: they decided to arrest her, entrusting this to Maya-Breza. The famous Ambroise Paré was also there, assisted by the royal physician. Paré had instruments in his hands, but he did not dare to begin the operation - this required complete silence, and equally the consent of all the doctors.
“Mr. Chancellor,” said Catherine, “the Duke and the Cardinal give their consent to subject the King to a strange operation. Ambroise suggests making a hole in his skull. I, as a mother and as a member of the regency council, protest against this - it seems to me that this is a crime against the person of the king. The rest of the doctors are in favor of making an injection, which, in my opinion, is just as effective, but less dangerous than this wild method of Ambroise.
Following these words, some ominous hum was heard in the hall. The cardinal let the chancellor through and closed the door behind him.
But I am now the supreme commander-in-chief,” said the Duke of Guise, “and you know, Mr. Chancellor, that the royal surgeon Ambroise is responsible for the life of the king!”
Ah, that's it! - exclaimed the famous surgeon. - Well, okay, I know what to do!
He extended his hand over the king's bed.
And this bed and the life of the king now belong to me. I am the only surgeon here and am responsible for everything. I know what I must do, and I will perform the operation on the king without waiting for the doctors to order me to do so...
Save the king, said the cardinal, and you will be the richest man in France.
So start soon! - exclaimed Mary Stuart, tightly squeezing Ambroise's hand.
“I cannot prevent this,” said the Chancellor, “but I must bear witness that the Queen Mother protests.”
Roberta! - shouted the Duke of Guise.
When Roberts appeared, the Supreme Commander pointed him to the Chancellor.
“You are appointed Chancellor of France to replace this traitor,” he said. - Monsieur de Maillet, take Monsieur L'Hopital to the prison where the Prince of Condé is sitting. Know, Your Majesty, that your protest was not accepted, and it would be a good idea for you to think about the fact that your actions should be supported by sufficient forces. I act as a loyal subject and as a devoted servant of my lord, Francis the second. Begin, Ambroise,” he added, looking at the surgeon.
Duke of Guise,” said L’Hopital, “if you ever think of using force against the king or the chancellor of France, then remember that there are enough French nobility in this hall to prevent traitors from giving free rein...
Listen, gentlemen,” exclaimed the famous surgeon, “if you do not stop your disputes now, you will soon have to shout: “Long live King Charles the Ninth!” - for King Francis the Second will die.
Catherine continued to look dispassionately out the window.
Well, we will have to use force to be masters in the royal chambers,” said the cardinal, about to close the doors.
But suddenly he was horrified: the courthouse was empty, and all the courtiers, confident that the king was about to die, hastened to go to Antoine of Navarre.
Do everything quickly! - Mary Stuart cried to Ambroise. “Both the Duchess and I,” she said, pointing to the Duchess of Guise, “we will support you.”
Your Majesty,” said Ambroise, “I was carried away by my plan, but with the exception of my friend Chaplin, all the doctors insist on injection, and I am obliged to obey them. If I had been the first physician and the first surgeon, the king's life would have been saved! Give me, I’ll do everything myself,” he said, taking the syringe from the hands of the first doctor and filling it.
“My God,” exclaimed Mary Stuart, “I command you...
What to do, Your Majesty, - said Ambroise, - I fulfill the will of the gentlemen doctors!
The young queen, together with the Duchess of Guise, stood in the middle between the surgeon, the doctors and everyone else. The first doctor lifted the king's head, and Ambroise injected it into his ear. The Duke and the Cardinal watched everything closely, Roberts and M. de Maillet remained motionless. Madame Fiesco, at a sign from Catherine, quietly left the room. At that moment, L'Hopital quickly opened the doors of the royal bedchamber.
Someone's quick footsteps were heard, echoing throughout the hall. At that same moment a voice was heard at the door of the royal bedchamber:
I arrived just in time. Well, gentlemen, have you decided to cut off the head of my nephew Prince Conde?.. With this you forced the lion to come out of his lair, and here he is in front of you.
It was Constable Montmorency.
Ambroise,” he exclaimed, “I will not allow you to delve into the head of my king with your tools!” The kings of France allow only enemy weapons to touch their heads during battle! The First Prince of the Blood Antoine de Bourbon, the Prince of Condé, the Queen Mother and the Chancellor are all against this operation.
To Catherine's great delight, the King of Navarre and the Prince of Condé followed the constable.
What does all of this mean? - exclaimed the Duke of Guise, clutching his dagger.
By right of constable, I removed the guard from all posts. Damn it! It's not enemies that surround you here! The King, our lord, is among his subjects, and the Estates General must enjoy complete freedom in the country. I came here, gentlemen, on behalf of the States! I presented there the protest of my nephew the Prince of Condé, whom three hundred nobles have now released. You wanted to shed royal blood to destroy our nobility. I no longer have confidence in you, gentlemen of Lorraine. You order the king's skull to be opened. I swear by this sword with which his grandfather saved France from Charles V, you will never be able to do this...
Moreover,” said Ambroise to Paré, “we are already late, the pus is spilling...
Your power has come to an end,” Catherine said to the Lorraineers, seeing from Ambroise’s face that there was no longer any hope.
You killed your son, empress! - Mary Stuart shouted.
She, like a lioness, rushed from the bed to the window, forcefully grabbing the Florentine’s hand.
“My dear,” answered Catherine, measuring her with a cold and intent gaze, saturated with hatred, which she had been holding back for six months, “the cause of the king’s death is nothing other than your frantic love.” Well, now you will go to reign in your Scotland, and tomorrow you will not set foot here. I am now the regent.
The doctors made some kind of sign to the Queen Mother.
“Gentlemen,” she said, looking at the Guises, “we have agreed with Monsieur Bourbon, whom the Estates General has now appointed supreme commander of the kingdom, that from now on we are in charge of all affairs. Mister Chancellor!
The king is dead! - said the marshal, who was supposed to announce this.
Long live King Charles the Ninth! - cried the nobles who came along with the King of Navarre, the Prince of Condé and the constable.
The ceremony which usually follows the death of the King of France was this time performed in silence. When the king of arms, after the official announcement of the Duke of Guise, announced three times in the hall: “The king is dead!” - only a few voices repeated: “Long live the king!”
As soon as Countess Fiesco brought the Duke of Orleans, who in a few moments was destined to become King Charles IX, to Catherine, the Queen Mother left, holding her son's hand. The whole yard followed her. In the room where Francis II breathed his last, only two Lorraine remained, the Duchess of Guise, Mary Stuart and Dayel, two guards at the door, the pages of the duke and cardinal and their personal secretaries.
Long live France! - several Reformed exclaimed. These were the first cries of the Guiz opponents.
Roberts, on whom the Duke and the Cardinal had high hopes, frightened both by their plans and by the failure that befell them, secretly sided with the Queen Mother, who was met by the ambassadors of Spain, England, the Holy Roman Empire and Poland. They were brought here by the Cardinal of Tournon, who appeared at the court of Catherine de Medici at the very moment when she began to protest against the operation of Ambroise Paré.
So, the descendants of Louis Overseas, the heirs of Charles of Lorraine, did not have enough courage, the cardinal said to the duke.
“They would have been sent to Lorraine anyway,” he replied. “I’m telling you, Charles, if I had to stretch out my hand to take the crown, I wouldn’t do it.” Let my son do this.
Will he ever have both an army and a church in his hands, like yours?
He will have more than that.
The people will be with him!
I'm the only one crying for him. My poor boy! He loved me so much! - Mary Stuart repeated, not letting go of her husband’s cold hand.
Who will help me negotiate with the queen? - asked the cardinal.
“Wait until she quarrels with the Huguenots,” replied the duchess.
The conflicting interests of the House of Bourbon, Catherine, the Guises, the Reformed - all this led Orleans into such confusion that when three days later the coffin with the body of the king, which everyone had forgotten, was taken away in an open hearse to Saint-Denis Saint-Denis is an abbey in the vicinity of Paris, founded in the 7th century by the Frankish king Dagobert I; subsequently the tomb of the kings and queens of France., he was accompanied only by the Bishop of Senlis and two nobles. When this sad procession arrived in the town of Etampes, one of Chancellor L'Hopital's servants tied a terrible inscription to the hearse, which history has remembered: “Tanguy-du-Châtel, where are you? You were a real Frenchman!” This cruel reproach fell on the heads of Catherine, Mary Stuart and the Lorraine people. What Frenchman did not know that Tanguy du Chatel spent thirty thousand crowns (a million in our money) on the funeral of Charles VII, the benefactor of his house!
Francis II, King of France and, through his marriage to Mary Stuart, nominally also King of Scotland, was a sickly and mentally unstable teenager of less than sixteen years of age when an accident at a tournament with his father in July 1559 brought him to the throne of France. In the sense of generally accepted legal understanding, the king was of age, therefore, despite his painful condition, the question of regency did not arise. However, there was no doubt that the choice of his closest advisers, in view of the natural weakness of his authority, acquired particular importance. Now the hour has come for the Guises, Duke Francis and his brother Charles, the refined and sharp-tongued Cardinal of Lorraine. Under Henry II, both representatives of the junior branch of the Lorraine ducal family repeatedly yielded to the constable de Montmorency; in the person of the new queen Mary Stuart, daughter of James V of Scotland and their sister Mary of Guise, they found significant support. In addition, Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici shared their dissatisfaction with the Montmorency-inspired peace at Cateau-Cambresy and became close to them in the last months of Henry II's life.
Thus, with the coming to power of Francis II, significant changes took place at court. Francis II did not engage in state affairs, entrusting them to the Guise brothers. Nevertheless, the old favorite of Henry II de Montmorency, who had influential supporters, did not experience too much humiliation. True, he lost real power, but retained the prestigious title of Constable of France, which theoretically implied supreme command of the royal army during the war, and was also confirmed to govern Languedoc.
Diane de Poitiers' star has set. The longtime friend and mistress of Henry II left the court and, in addition, was forced to cede her castle of Chenonceau, located on the Loire, to Catherine de Medici in exchange for the less luxurious Chaumont. Anyone who advanced thanks to her patronage had to give way to those close to Catherine de Medici or Guizov.
However, the latter had to reckon not only with old rivals, like Montmorency and his like-minded people. Aristocrats who were related to the royal house, and if the direct line ended, had the right to succession to the throne (the so-called “princes of the blood”), given the existing weakness of the monarchy, posed a serious danger to leading ministers. Two representatives of the House of Bourbon were in this regard the most dangerous rivals of the Guises: Antoine, Duke of Vendôme and, thanks to his marriage to Jeanne d'Albret, the King of Navarre, and his younger brother Louis de Condé. Due to their special relationship with the royal house, they easily became the center of various opposition groups and both made no secret of their inclination towards Protestantism. It was in the sphere of religious policy that the Guises prompted Francis II to continue the inflexible line of his predecessor. Henry II, in the Edict of Écouen of June 2, 1559, ordered the crime of heresy to be punished by death by burning; now they were other measures were added that touched the vital nerve of the Protestant church that existed underground: houses that served as meeting places were to be destroyed, allowing or organizing secret meetings was punishable by death, and owners of feudal estates with judicial powers were deprived of judicial rights if they carelessly prosecuted religious apostates. the authorities encouraged denunciations of Protestants by declaring excommunication if they failed to report heresy. At the same time, a wave of searches increased the number of arrests of adherents of the new doctrine. Religious antagonism began to penetrate into the lower strata of the population: mutual provocations and bloody clashes between Catholics and Protestants became more and more frequent.
Subsequently, the radicalization of French Protestantism was inevitable, to which active elements joined due to the increasing influx of nobles. The elimination of “foreign” favorites, who were seen as the perpetrators of the crown’s irreconcilable policy, and a more active participation in power of the domestic nobility were the main goals of the movement, which was soon headed by Louis de Condé. Unlike his brother, who was rather indecisive in character, Conde was prone to energetic and bold actions. With his knowledge and approval, a secret meeting took place in Nantes in February 1560 under the leadership of a native of Péri-Hore, a provincial nobleman named La Renaudie, who had converted to Protestantism in Geneva. This assembly, which considered itself the legitimate representative of the entire nation, decided on armed action directed only against the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine, but not against the crown.
The costly preparations for such an undertaking could not go unnoticed. When the first reports of the plot appeared, the king and his retinue left undefended Blois and went down the Loire. The court retreated to the castle of Amboise, which was immediately prepared for defense by the Duke of Guise.
On March 16, La Renaudie attempted to storm Amboise. Troops loyal to the king dispersed the poorly organized attackers, among whom were many artisans untrained in military affairs, and captured a large number of prisoners. La Renaudie himself died in the battle, but those who survived were convicted as state traitors by a criminal court. In the following days, Amboise became the site of numerous executions; According to contemporaries, even the walls and gates of the castle were hung with the bodies of those executed. Although the armed uprising was a complete collapse, the events in Amboise were not without consequences. In the immediate circle of the king, voices were heard louder and louder, placing responsibility for the uprising on the Guises, and in the interests of the state they advised to treat Protestants with greater tolerance. Timid steps in this direction soon followed: even with the first reports of the conspiracy on March 2, 1560, the Royal Council drafted an order promising amnesty to those Protestants who were ready to change their religion. The Edict of Romorantin limited the competence of secular courts in religious matters and assigned only ecclesiastical courts the task of making decisions on heresy as a crime.
This trend towards more flexible policies was inspired and supported by Catherine de' Medici. The Queen Mother began to move away from her previous reserve and play the role of a deft, if necessary even shameless, defender of the interests of the monarchy and thereby her own house. Whether she really had, as many Protestants hoped and believed, a secret sympathy for the teachings of Calvin seems doubtful; but it is absolutely certain that intransigence in religious matters was absolutely not consistent with its pragmatic nature. What now prompted her to interfere in political events was a clear awareness of the danger to which the crown was exposed by being on the side of the Guises.
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The appointment of Michel de l'Hôpital, a humanistically educated lawyer imbued with the spirit of religious equality, to replace Chancellor Olivier, who died in February 1560, was the work of Catherine. Also when Admiral Coligny, Maupmorency's nephew and a moderate representative of the Protestants, advised convening the notables of the kingdom to resolve internal problems, she supported him. The Guises, who, as before, were subjected to fierce attacks by Protestant propaganda, had no choice but to take a conciliatory position, moreover, their position was undermined by foreign policy failures: in Scotland in February 1560, the regent Maria of Guise, supported by her brothers, suffered a decisive defeat from the Protestants, acting with English help.
The meeting initiated by Coligny took place on 10.08 in Fontainebleau. Many notables openly criticized the uncompromising policy of the Guises; representatives of the highest clergy even recommended convening a national Council in the event that the General Council to eliminate the confessional schism failed. The Gizas realized that they had to make concessions. The Cardinal of Lorraine, however, in his objection sharply spoke out against far-reaching concessions to the Protestants, but no longer questioned the temporary and limited religious tolerance. His proposal to convene the Estates General of the kingdom as quickly as possible received full approval.
True, Navarre and Conde, two prominent representatives of the highest aristocracy, were not present at Fontainebleau. Both Catherine and the Guises had no doubt from the very beginning about Condé's involvement in the La Renaudie uprising. Condé was at court during the assault on Amboise and even after it, but under the impression of first hidden and then open hints about his connection with the rebels, he left it and went with his brother to southwestern France. Until the Bourbons were taken out of the game, it was hardly possible to suppress the repeatedly flaring uprisings in individual provinces, primarily in Provence and Dauphine. Catherine de Medici and Guise persuaded the king to categorically summon Navarre and Conde to the court so that they would justify themselves regarding the reproach thrown at them for high treason. The perpetrators could hardly ignore this order. Philip II of Spain, at the request of Catherine, by concentrating troops on the Pyrenean border, did more than he should have done in order to intimidate the King of Navarre.
10/31/1560 Navarre and Condé arrived in Orleans, where the Estates General were to meet. Francis II met Conde with sharp reproaches, he was arrested and brought before a special court. At the end of November, two “princes of the blood” were sentenced to death for treason. True, not all the judges agreed with the verdict, which gave Chancellor L'Hôpital the opportunity to counteract the Guises' desire to immediately carry it out. In fact, Catherine de' Medici was afraid that the execution of Condé would plunge the crown into even deeper contradictions with the French Protestants and would again hand it over to hands of the Guises. For her, it was important to politically tame the “princes of the blood” and their supporters, without pushing them to further radicalization, especially since it was now clear that the days of her eldest son were numbered. A fistula had formed in the king’s left ear, which doctors could not resolve nothing could be done, and the illness offered no chance of recovery. Francis II's heir presumptive was his ten-year-old brother Charles, and the shadow of a regency hung over the kingdom, in which the "princes of the blood" were to take a decisive part. Consequently, it was important for the Queen Mother to use the remaining time to regroup forces and prevent the monarchy from drowning in a maelstrom of factional and party battles. And the last thing she wanted was for a Bourbon regent to replace the Guises.
The King of Navarre was left free, but he was in constant fear not only for his brother’s life, but also for his own. Catherine took advantage of this uncertainty of the first “prince of the blood.” In the presence of the Guises, she accused Navarre of treason and outright denied him the right to be regent for the minor heir. To bolster assurances of his innocence, and in exchange for vague promises of the title of "Lieutenant General of the Realm", Navarre offered to renounce his rights to the regency in favor of the Queen Mother, to which Catherine immediately readily agreed. At the same time, Catherine provided an important service to the Guises: thanks to the dying king's statement that he acted on his own decision, the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine were released from responsibility for the arrest and conviction of Condé, which made at least an external reconciliation with the Bourbons possible.
By the end of the reign of Francis II, Catherine, through deft tactics, managed to achieve her goal - to preserve the independence of the crown in the face of intensified strife between Catholics and Protestants, supporters of the Guises, on the one hand, and the “princes of the blood” on the other.
Francis II.
Reproduction from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/
Francis II
King of France
Francois II
Years of life: January 19, 1544 - December 5, 1560
Reign: July 10, 1559 - December 5, 1560
Father: Henry II
Mother: Catherine de Medici
Wife: Maria Stuart
Francis became king at the age of 16 after the unexpected death of his father at a knight's tournament. He was a sickly young man with an unstable psyche. Despite the fact that according to French law he was considered an adult, it was obvious that he could not rule on his own. A year earlier, he married Mary Stuart, whom he loved madly, and therefore actual power in the state was in the hands of Mary’s uncles, Francis of Guise and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. The king himself did not delve into matters at all, spending all his time in fun, hunting and entertainment with his young wife.
The Guises, zealous Catholics, convinced Francis to sign an edict that intensified the persecution of the Huguenots, which began under Henry II. Participants in secret meetings of Protestants now faced the death penalty, and the houses where the meetings took place were to be demolished. In response, the Protestant opposition, led by Antoine de Bourbon, the king of Navarre, his brother Louis de Condé and Admiral Coligny, nephew of Constable Montmorency, drew up the so-called Amboise plot, according to which it was planned to capture the king in the castle of Blois, persuade him to renounce religious persecution and remove him from himself Gizov. The plot, however, was discovered. Antoine of Navarre and the Prince of Condé were arrested and escaped execution only thanks to the intervention of Catherine de' Medici.
Soon after this, Francis fell ill. A fistula formed in his ear, gangrene began, inflammation spread to the brain, and a few days later the king died, leaving no heir. Thus the crown passed to his brother Charles.
Material used from the site http://monarchy.nm.ru/
Francis II (Franois II) (1544–1560), king France , eldest son of Henry II and Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on January 19, 1544. In April 1558, Francis married Mary Stuart, niece of the Duke of Guise, the future Queen of Scotland. In July 1559, after the death of his father from an accident, Francis ascended the throne. His short reign was characterized by the dominance of the Guise family in the domestic and foreign policy of the state, as well as the emergence in France of a group of Protestants that resolutely opposed official religious policy. In an attempt to capture the king in order to deprive the Guises of influence on him, the Huguenots carried out the so-called defeat that ended with them. Amboise Conspiracy (1560). Francis died in Orleans on December 5, 1560.
Materials from the encyclopedia "The World Around Us" were used
Francis II (1544-1560) - king France from the Valois family, who ruled in 1559-1560. Son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici.
Wife: since May 24, 1558 Mary Stuart, daughter of King James V of Scotland (b. 1542 + 1587).
Francis was a sickly and mentally unstable teenager of less than sixteen years old when an accident at a tournament with Henry II in July 1559 elevated him to the throne of France. According to French law, he was considered an adult. But there was no doubt that he would not be able and would not want to rule without outside help. Indeed, Francis did not engage in state affairs, entrusting them to the Guise brothers: Duke Francis and his brother Charles, the refined and sharp-tongued Cardinal of Lorraine. If in the previous reign of Guise they had to constantly cede primacy to Constable Montmorency, now thanks to their niece Queen Mary Stuart they gained undivided power. The king did not delve into anything, and all his time was spent in fun, traveling around country palaces, hunting trips, and most importantly - in pleasures, a whole swarm of which he found in the arms of his wife, whom he loved to the point of adoration.
The Guises were devout Catholics. Therefore, their influence was especially strong in the sphere of religious politics. They encouraged Francis to continue the inflexible line of his father Henry, who, in his edict of 1559, ordered the punishment of death for all those guilty of heresy. Now other measures were added: houses that served as meeting places for Protestants were to be destroyed, and the death penalty was imposed for participation in secret meetings. The persecution of the Huguenots caused retaliatory actions on their part. The Protestant party was then led by two princes from the House of Bourbon: Antoine, King of Navarre, and his brother Louis de Condé. Constable Montmorency's nephew, Admiral Coligny, also played a major role. With their direct participation in Nantes, the so-called Amboise conspiracy took shape, organized by the provincial nobleman La Renaudie. The conspirators intended to capture the king with his entire court at the castle of Blois, force him to renounce religious persecution and remove the Guises from themselves. This enterprise, however, was discovered much earlier than its implementation. The court hastily took refuge in Amboise. When La Renaudie finally tried to carry out his plan, he suffered a complete failure: his people were killed, and he himself died in battle. Many Protestants suspected of treason were captured and executed almost without any trial. In December 1560, Antoine of Navarre and the Prince of Condé, who arrived in Orleans for a meeting of the States General, were arrested. Both of them were sentenced to death and only thanks to the intervention of the cautious Catherine de Medici they escaped immediate execution. In the midst of these events, the king was suddenly brought to the grave by a quick and fatal illness: a fistula formed in his left ear, gangrene began, and, having been ill for less than two weeks, Francis died. Since there were no children left after him, the throne passed to his ten-year-old brother Charles.
All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999
Introduction
Francis (Francois) II (fr. François II; January 19, 1544 (15440119), Fontainebleau Palace, France - December 5, 1560, Orleans, France) - King of France from July 10, 1559, King Consort of Scotland from April 24, 1558. From the Valois dynasty.
1. Francis' childhood
The eldest son of Henry II, named after his grandfather, Francis I. On April 24, 1558, he married the young Queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart (he was the first of her three husbands); after this marriage he became King Consort of Scotland. The agreement on this marriage was concluded on January 27, 1548 (when the bride and groom were 4 and 6 years old, respectively), and for the next 10 years, Maria was raised at the French court.
2. Accession to the throne
Francis II and Mary Stuart.
Francis was a sickly and mentally unstable teenager of less than sixteen years old when, on July 10, 1559, an accident at a tournament with his father Henry II elevated him to the throne of France and on September 21 he was crowned in Reims. According to French law, he was considered an adult. But there was no doubt that he would not be able and would not want to rule without outside help.
Indeed, Francis did not engage in state affairs, entrusting them to Mary Stuart’s uncles, the Guise brothers: Duke Francois and his brother Charles, the refined and sharp-tongued Cardinal of Lorraine. His mother Catherine de Medici became regent. If during the previous reign the Guises had to constantly cede primacy to Constable Montmorency, now, thanks to their niece Queen Mary Stuart, they have gained undivided power. The king did not delve into anything, and all his time was spent in fun, traveling around country palaces, hunting trips, and most importantly - in pleasures, a whole swarm of which he found in the arms of his wife, whom he loved to the point of adoration.
3. Religious politics
Hotel Groslot in Orleans, place of death of Francis II.
The Guises were zealous Catholics, so their influence was especially strong in the field of religious politics. They encouraged Francis to continue the inflexible line of his father Henry II, who, in his 1559 edict, ordered the punishment of death for all those guilty of heresy. Now other measures were added: houses that served as meeting places for Protestants were to be destroyed, and the death penalty was imposed for participation in secret meetings. The persecution of the Huguenots caused retaliatory actions on their part. The Protestant party was then led by two princes from the house of Bourbon: Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre, and his brother Louis of Condé.
Constable Montmorency's nephew, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, also played a major role. With their direct participation in Nantes, the so-called Amboise conspiracy took shape, organized by the provincial nobleman La Renaudie. The conspirators intended to capture the king with his entire court at the castle of Blois, force him to renounce religious persecution and remove the Guises from themselves. This enterprise, however, was discovered much earlier than its implementation. The court hastily took refuge in Amboise. When La Renaudie finally tried to carry out his plan, he suffered a complete failure: his people were killed, and he himself died in battle. Many Protestants suspected of treason were captured and executed almost without any trial. In December 1560, Antoine de Bourbon and the Prince of Condé were arrested when they arrived in Orleans for a meeting of the Estates General. Both of them were sentenced to death and only thanks to the intervention of the cautious Catherine de Medici they escaped immediate execution.
4. Death of Francis
In the midst of these events, the king was suddenly brought to the grave by a quick and fatal illness: a fistula formed in his left ear, gangrene began, and, having been ill for less than two weeks, Francis II died in Orleans shortly before his 17th birthday. He had no children, and his 10-year-old brother Charles IX ascended the throne.
Literature
Ryzhov K. Francis II Valois // All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. - M.: Veche, 1999. - 656 p. - 10000 copies. - ISBN 5-7838-0374-X
Henri Naef, La Conjuration d'Amboise et Genève, in Mémoires et documents publiés par la Société d"histoire et d"archéologie de Genève, 32 (2e sér., 2.2), 1922.
Lucien Romier, La Conjuration d"Amboise. L"aurore sanglante de la liberté de conscience, le règne et la mort de François II, Paris, Librairie academique Perrin et Cie, 1923. 292 p.
Louis-Raymond Lefèvre, Les Français pendant les guerres de religion. Le Tumulte d'Amboise, Paris, Gallimard, NRF, 1949. 256 p.
Corrado Vivanti, "La congiura d'Amboise" in Complots et conjurations dans l"Europe moderne, Publications de l'École française de Rome, 1996, pp. 439-450. ISBN 2-7283-0362-2
Elizabeth A. R. Brown, “La Renaudie se venge: l"autre face de la conjuration d"Amboise" in Complots et conjurations dans l"Europe moderne, Publications de l'École française de Rome, 1996, pp. 451-474. ISBN 2-7283-0362-2
Arlette Jouanna, "Le thème polémique du complot contre la noblesse lors des prizes d"armes nobiliaires sous les derniers Valois " in Complots et conjurations dans l"Europe moderne, Publications de l'École française de Rome, 1996, pp. 475-490. ISBN 2-7283-0362-2
The future King Francis II was born into the family of Henry II (1519-1559) and Catherine de Medici (1519-1589). This happened in the eleventh year of the crowned couple's marriage, on January 19, 1544. The child was named after his grandfather. Due to the fact that Catherine could not give birth to an heir for a long time, she was removed from the king, who began to live with his favorite Diane de Poitiers.
Infancy
Francis II grew up in the Saint-Germain Palace. It was a residence in a Parisian suburb on the banks of the Seine. The child was baptized on February 10, 1544 in Fontainebleau. The Grandfather King then knighted him. Paul III and aunt became godparents
In 1546, the baby became governor of Languedoc, and a year later received the title of Dauphin, after his grandfather died and his father Henry II became king. The child had many mentors, including a Greek scientist from Naples. The growing heir learned to dance and fencing (this was a sign of good manners in that era).
Organization of marriage
The issue of engagement and continuation of the dynasty was important. Henry II decided that his son would marry Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. She was born on December 8, 1542 and from the very first days received her title, because her father, James V, died at the same time. In fact, her closest relative, James Hamilton (Earl of Arran), ruled for her.
At that time, the religious issue was acute. France and Scotland were Catholic countries. England received its Protestant Church. Therefore, the authorities of the three countries were not in too much of a hurry to conclude alliances. When the “French” party finally won in Scotland, the nobles decided to marry the little queen to the Dauphin from Paris. The initiator of such an alliance was Cardinal David Beaton, who removed Hamilton.
At the same time, British troops suddenly invaded the country. Catholic churches were destroyed and peasant lands were ruined. The Protestants carried out individual terror against the Scottish nobles who did not want to make concessions to their southern neighbor. Finally, Mary's regents turned to France for help. Troops came from there in exchange for the promised wedding. In August 1548, Mary, who had just turned five, boarded a ship and went to her future husband.
Wedding with Mary Stuart
The girl, among other things, was also the granddaughter of Claude de Guise, a peer of France and one of the most influential aristocrats in the country. He looked after her and helped at court until his death, which overtook the venerable nobleman in 1550. The bride was unusually tall for her age, while Francis II, on the contrary, was short. Despite this, Henry II liked his future daughter-in-law, and he said with satisfaction that the children would get used to each other over time.
The wedding took place on April 24, 1558. The new marriage meant that in the future the descendants of this couple would be able to unite the thrones of Scotland and France under one scepter. In addition, Mary was the great-granddaughter of the English king Henry VII. This fact would give her children a legitimate reason to claim the throne in London. Until his death, Francis II remained King Consort of Scotland. This title did not give real power, but secured the status of the ruler's husband. But the couple never had children during their short marriage. This was due to the young age and possible illnesses of the Dauphin.
Succession to the throne
Just a year after the wedding (July 10, 1559), Francis II of Valois became king due to the premature death of his father. Henry II celebrated the wedding of one of his daughters and, according to tradition, organized a knightly tournament. The king fought with one of the guests - Gabriel de Montgomery. The count's spear broke on Henry's shell, and a fragment of it hit the ruler in the eye. The wound turned out to be fatal because it caused inflammation. The king died, despite the fact that he was assisted by the best doctors in Europe, including Andreas Vesalius (the founder of the modern teaching of anatomy). It is believed that Henry's death was predicted by Nostradamus, who, by the way, was still alive at that time.
On September 21, 1559, Francis II of Valois was crowned in Reims. The ritual of laying on the crown was entrusted to Cardinal Charles de Guise. The crown turned out to be so heavy that the courtiers had to support it. Charles became one of the regents along with Mary's uncles from the Guise family. The mother, Catherine de Medici, also had a great influence on the child. The young monarch spent all his free time on entertainment: hunting, organizing amusing tournaments and traveling around his palaces.
His reluctance to delve into state affairs further fueled the enmity between various court clans that longed for manifestations of real power. The Gizas, who actually began to rule the country, were faced with a sea of internal problems, each of which overlapped with the other.
Problems with the treasury
First of all, there was a financial issue. Francis II and Mary Stuart gained the throne after several costly wars with the Habsburgs started by previous Valois. The state borrowed from banks, resulting in a debt of 48 million livres, while the royal treasury received only 12 million in income per year.
Because of this, the Gizas began to pursue a policy of financial austerity, which was one of the reasons for their unpopularity in society. In addition, the brothers deferred payments to the military. The army was generally reduced, and many soldiers were left without work, after which they became robbers or participated in religious wars, profiting from the confrontation of all against all. The courtyard, which had lost its usual luxury, was also dissatisfied.
Foreign policy
In foreign policy, Francis II and his advisers tried to continue efforts to strengthen and maintain the peace that came after the end of the Italian Wars. It was a series of armed conflicts that stretched from 1494 to 1559. Henry II, shortly before his death, concluded the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresia. The agreement consisted of two papers.
The first treaty was signed with the Queen of England. According to it, the captured coastal Calais was assigned to France, but in exchange for this, Paris had to pay 500 thousand ecus. However, Giza, faced with a mass of debts within the country, decided not to provide money for the fortress. Time has shown that 500 thousand ecus remained only on paper, while Calais turned out to be the property of France. Nobody opposed this, including Francis II. The biography of the young monarch eloquently suggests that he generally did not like to take the initiative into his own hands.
Territorial concessions
The second treaty, concluded at Cateau-Cambresis, reconciled France and Spain. It was much more painful. France lost large territories. She gave the Habsburgs Thionville, Marienburg, Luxembourg, as well as some areas in Charolais and Artois. The Duke of Savoy (an ally of Spain) received Savoy, Piedmont from Paris. The Genoese Republic received Corsica.
Francis had no choice but to fulfill the points of the agreement drawn up by his father, because of which Spain finally took a leading position in the Old World, while France, busy with internal strife, could not oppose anything to this.
Another interesting clause in the treaty stated that Emmanuel Philibert (Duke of Savoy) married Francis' aunt, Margaret. This marriage took place already during the reign of the young monarch. Another wedding took place between Philip of Spain and Francis' sister Elizabeth.
Also during Francis's reign, lengthy negotiations continued with the Spanish crown on the return of hostages from both sides of the border to their homeland. Some of them had been in prison for decades.
At the same time, an uprising of Protestant lords against the French regents began in Scotland. The official religion was changed, after which all Parisian managers hastily left the country.
Religious War
The Guise brothers were fanatical Catholics. It was they who initiated a new wave of repression against Protestants living in France. This measure was allowed by King Francis II, who gave the go-ahead for freedom of action to his wife’s uncles. Huguenots were persecuted to the point of mass executions. The places of their gatherings and meetings were destroyed, as if they were plague barracks.
The actions of the Catholics were opposed by the Protestant party, which also had its leaders at the royal court. These were distant relatives of the ruler Antoine de Bourbon (king of the small mountain Navarre) and Louis Condé. They were also called “princes of the blood” (that is, they were representatives of the Capetian dynasty, to which the reigning Valois also belonged).
Ambauz conspiracy
In March 1560, the Huguenots, in response to the actions of the Catholics, staged the Ambausian Conspiracy. This was an attempt to capture Francis and force him to alienate the Guise brothers. However, the plans became known in advance, and the royal court took refuge in Ambause, a city located on the Loire and the heart of all France. Nevertheless, the conspirators decided to take a risk. Their attempt failed, the invaders were killed by guards.
This was the reason for a wave of persecution of Protestants. They were executed practically without trial. Antoine de Bourbon and Louis Condé were also arrested and charged with conspiracy. They were saved only by the fact that the king’s mother, Catherine de’ Medici, stood up for them. She, like many aristocrats behind her, was a moderate on religious matters and tried to reach a compromise between Catholics and Huguenots. It was December 1560.
Policy of reconciliation
After such heightened passions, religious policy became softer, which was ratified by Francis II. His reign was marked by the release of all prisoners based on their religion. This was the first relaxation since the time of Henry II. In May 1560, an edict was issued and signed by Francis II. The Duke of Brittany (this is one of his many titles) first spoke about
In April, the Queen Mother announced Michel de l'Hopital as Chancellor of France. He was a famous civil servant, poet and humanist of the era. The writer published poems in Latin, in which he imitated the ancient Horace. His father formerly served Charles de Bourbon. Tolerant Michel began to pursue a policy of tolerance. For a dialogue between the warring faiths, they were convened (for the first time in 67 years). Soon a decree was adopted, which was drawn up by de l'Hopital. He abolished the death penalty for crimes against religion. The rest of the politician’s activities remained outside the board, whose face was Francis II. The children on the throne began to replace each other, like a charming coquette changing gloves.
Death of Francis and fate of Mary
Francis II, the king of France, could no longer follow these events. A fistula suddenly formed in his ear, causing fatal gangrene. On December 5, 1560, the 16-year-old monarch died in Orleans. The next son of Henry II, Charles X, ascended the throne.
Francis' wife Mary Stuart returned to her homeland, where by that time the Protestants had triumphed. Their faction demanded that the young queen break with the Roman Church. The girl managed to maneuver between the two sides of the conflict until she was deprived of the throne in 1567, after which she fled to England. There she was imprisoned by Elizabeth Tudor. The Scotswoman was seen in careless correspondence with a Catholic agent, with whom she coordinated an attempt on the life of the Queen of England. As a result, Mary was executed in 1587 at the age of 44.