Location: Moscow, st. Vozdvizhenka, 3/5, RSL, reading room of the department of current periodicals Time spending: August 15 - September 15, 2014 Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich (1893-1930). Oh, the Sultan would sit in the Port, Do not spoil the snout with a fight: [Izomaterial]: [lubok] / [Art. and the author of the text V. V. Mayakovsky]. - Moscow: Today's lubok, 1914. Centennial from the day of the on-cha-la of the First World War in the RSL from-me-cha-yut in the chi-tal-room of the department of those-ku-shchih-ri -o-di-che-ski from-da-ny. Here, or-ga-ni-zo-va-li you-stav-ku-tey from 19 is-to-ri-che-sky and social-stven-but-po-li-ti-che-sky zhurs -to-catch. In the articles for-tra-gi-va-yut-sya-whether-ti-che-pri-chi-us on-cha-la conflict-ta, and also tell-say-zy- va-yut-sya is-to-rii about his heroes and participants-ni-kah - sol-da-tah, sa-ni-ta-rah, priest-no-kah. Sta-ty serve-ho-ro-shim to-half-not-no-eat to the broad-broad-no-mu list of whether-te-ra-tu-ry about the First world-ro- howl, you can find something in the funds of the RSL. First World War (July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918) ra. She took away 12 million-li-o-new lives and in-gu-bi-la che-you-re-im-pe-rii: Russian-si-s, German, Av-st- ro-Hungarian and Ottoman. In general, there would be thirty countries in it. According to the degree of influence on the further course of the Russian and world history, the events of 1914-1918 have los-sal-noe value. For Russia, this period has become a time of serious-neither-experiment-ta-ny, when si-ly you-went to the front-stage-well and windows-cha-tel-but you-mature before-for-syl-ki for the February and October re-vo-lu- tions. These two revolutions, and then the Second World War, as larger-scale events, you-tes-no-whether in on-kind-of-knowing-remembrance of the First World War.

According to you, is-to-ri-kaNatalia Na-roch-nits-koy, “the main reason for not-for-service-wife-but-for-bve-niya of the First world war-we in the father-th- co-sto-it is in the fact that she was subjected to the idea-lo-gi-zi-ro-van in the Soviet times -nym trak-tov-kam, would-la okha-rak-te-ri-zo-va-na as im-pe-ri-a-li-sti-che-sky, not-right-wed-li-vaya and not-necessary on-ro-du. Appeal to the dramatic co-be-ti-pits of 1914-1918 is important to us, but now for something that would not be second- ryat mistakes-side of the past. Only the one who knows the history is able to meet adek-wat-but meet you-so-you coming.”

Julia Lu-ne-va, can-di-dat is-to-ri-che-science, in the journal-on-le "New and new-vei-shae is-to-riya" (2013, No. 1) ana-li-zi-ru-et inter-du-na-rod-nye from-no-she-niya of the twentieth century, Bal-ka-ny as a conflict-ny re-gi-on and The first world war. The author, in fractional-but-is-follow-du-et, fights-boo Germany, Austria, Hungary and Italy with We-li-ko-bri-ta-ni- her, Franc-tsi-ey and Ros-si-ey for stra-te-gi-che-ski and eco-but-mi-che-ski important re-gi-on - Bal-ka-ny, ob- na-zh-et in-te-re-sy of each from-del-country in this conflict. The Balkan Wars became the pro-log of the First World War.

Malevich, Kazimir Severinovich (1879-1935). Wilhelm's carousel: [Izomaterial]: “Near Paris on the edge
They beat my army...”: [lubok] / Artist K. S. Malevich, [author of the text V. V. Mayakovsky]. - Moscow:
Today's lubok .

Elena Sa-mar-tse-va in the journal “New and new-ish is-to-riya” (2013, No. 3) reports on the First on-academic conference on the First World War, pro-shed in Tu-le February 5-7, 2013: “Russia in the First mi-ro-howl howl-not: Bal-kan-sky as-pekt. Ito-gi and per-spec-ty-you. Ini-qi-a-to-ra-mi pro-ve-de-niya on-uch-no-go for-ru-ma became-whether pre-sta-vi-te-whether In-sti-tu-ta is -to-rii Uni-ver-si-te-ta Cher-no-go-ri, Tul-go-go-su-dar-stven-no-go uni-ver-si-te-ta, Ob-ra -zo-va-tel-no-go fund-yes named after brothers Tru-bets-kih and Tula-go-su-dar-stven-no-go weapon museum. According to the results of the con-fe-ren-tion, a collection of ma-te-ri-a-lov will be given.

In the no-me-re “New-howl and new-vei-she is-to-rii” (2014,№ 1 ) in-te-res-na sta-tya can-di-da-ta na-uk, pro-fes-so-ra RSUHBoris Khav-ki-na “Russian Front of the First World War (1914-1918). The author, in a fractional way, studies the military plans of Russia, entry into the war, well, the course of the military actions of Russia about -tiv of Germany and Austria-st-ro-Hungary in 1914, the results of the war for Russia, the Brest-Litovsk world.

In No. 2 for 2014, the journal-on-la “New and newest is-to-riya” Evgeny Sergeev, doctor of is-to-ri-che-sciences, pre-zi-dent of the Russian as-so-qi-a-tion is-to-ri-kov of the First World War, go-vo-rit about ak-tu-al- nyh pro-ble-mach study of the First world war. The author considers it important for-yes-whose co-creation of the en-cyclo-lo-pe-di-che-th-word-var-ya under the name-ni- I eat "First World War".

In "Vo-en-no-is-to-ri-che-zhur-on-le" (2013,№ 3 ) Aleksey Olei-nik-kov ras-sa-zy-va-et about the ra-di-o-raz-ved-ke on the Russian front in the First World War-well. “It seems that there has never been such a war before, so that the plans would be against so quickly news-ny-mi ... ”- this is how the author called his article. Use-zo-va-nie radio for-met-but ras-shi-ri-lo times-ve-dy-va-tel-nuyu de-ya-tel-nost in the years of First mi -ro-howl war-ny. Listening to non-at-I-tel-sky tele-le-background times-go-in-ditch became-lo-key-chi-tel-but important source-toch -no one in-for-ma-tion about pro-tiv-no-ke. One of the reasons for the failures of the Russian troops became on-ru-she-nie re-zhi-ma secret-no-sti and non-qualitative ciphers. German connections re-gu-lyar-but pe-re-hwa-you-va-li Russian radio-grams-we with an important opera-ra-tiv-noy -for-ma-qi-ey, which is na-no-si-lo huge damage to the Russian army.

In-te-res-on pub-li-ka-tion “Front-on-the-go day-no-ka village-go-teach-te-la” in “Vo-en-but-is-to- ri-che-skom zhur-on-le "(2014,№ 3 ). An-drey Kuz-mich Phi-li-mo-nov was called into action by the army of sa-ni-ta-rum. The author of the day-no-describes the daily life and work of a simple one hundred sol-yes-ta-sa-ni-ta-ra.

Lentulov, Aristarkh Vasilyevich (1882-1943). The Austrian gave Lvov to the Russians, Where are the hares against the lions! ..:
[Izomaterial]: [lubok] / [Text author V. V. Mayakovsky]. - Moscow: Today's lubok,

In the magazine-on-le "Bla-go-west-nick" (2013,№ 3 ) members of Vo-en-no-is-to-ri-che-th-societyAlexey Minaev and Pavel Poletaev raz-me-sti-whether the article “Hero-pas-tyr” about the priest of the 198th infantry-hot-no-go Aleksandra Nevsky half-ka tse Alek-san-dre Uspen-skom. Av-th-ry tell-say-zy-wa-yut about a special place, someone for-no-small institute-there is half a Russian army. Priest-nick for-mi-ro-val moral qualities in-and-new, special spirit of goodness and right-of-glorious traditions half-ka. Father Alexander Uspensky brilliantly showed himself on the field of marriage. He didn’t p-ha-whether neither re-shooters, nor the thunder of ar-til-le-ri, he took part in raids behind enemy lines, raz-ved-ke bo-eat, in shtur-max. Not-rarely, he came to-ho-di-elk to turn from a doctor of the spirit-hov-no-go into a doctor-cha of the forest-no-go. For you-so-for-servants priestAlek-san-dr Uspen-sky was on-civil-den you-so-ki-mi on-gra-da-mi: or-de-na-mi and me-da-la-mi for moving in Russian-Japanese, and then in the First World War. In 1916, half a priest was killed. Sacred-no-kam for-pre-el-elk in the First World War-well, serve in the army as officers and ranks, according to -this-mu went to the front of their de-ti.

“Vo-lo-god-priests-shchen-ni-ki and their de-ti - participants-ni-ki of the First world-war-howl” - so-called-zy-va-et-sya hundred -tya Elena De-mi-do-howl in the magazine-on-le "Bla-go-vest-nick" (2014, No. 2). The author of the story tells about the children of many se-mey priests of the Vo-lo-god-gu-ber-nii, in-e-vav-shih in The first world war-well, and on-civil-den-nyh for from-va-gu.

List of jour-na-catch presented at you-rate:

• "Bla-go-vest-nick". 2013, no. 3, p. 41-46


• "Bla-go-vest-nick". 2014, no. 2, p. 18-20


• "Vo-en-no-is-to-ri-che-sky magazine". 2013, no. 3, p. 3-8


• "Vo-en-no-is-to-ri-che-sky magazine". 2013, no. 5, p. 68-70


• “Vo-en-no-is-to-ri-che-sky ar-khiv”. 2014, no. 3, p. 111-120


• "Amateur". 201, no. 1, p. 68-71


• "Science and life". 2014, no. 6, p. 38-45


• "Science and life". 2014, no. 7


• "Na-qi-o-nal-ny control of the Russian Federation." 2014, no. 1, p. 68-71


• "New and newest history". 2013, no. 1, p. 78-91


• "New and newest history". 2013, no. 3, p. 241-242


• "New and newest history". 2014, no. 1, p. 3-17


• "New and newest history". 2014, no. 2, p. 3-35


• "Peter's bridge". 2014, no. 1, p. 166-171


• "Russian world". 2014, no. 1, p. 10-11


• "Russian world.ru". 2014, no. 3, p. 30-35


• "Change". 2014, no. 2


• "Young Kra-e-Ved". 2014, no. 3, p. 27-34


• "Weekend" (attachment to the Kom-mer-sant newspaper). 2014, no. 10

June 28 - Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo
July 28 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
July 29 - announcement of general mobilization in the Russian Empire
August 1 - the beginning of the First World War. Germany declares war on Russia
August 2 - signing of a secret alliance treaty between Turkey and Germany
August 3 - Germany declares war on France
August 4 - German invasion of Belgium
August 4 - England declares war on Germany
August 6 Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia
September 5-12 - Battle of the Marne
October 29 - Turkey enters the war on the side of Germany
November 2 - Russia declares war on Turkey

1915

April 22 - the use of poison gas (yperite) by the Germans in an attack near the city of Ypres
May 23 - Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary
July 9 - the capture of South West Africa by British troops
September 5 - Creation of the Quarter Union (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria)
October - entry of Bulgaria into the war on the side of Germany
October-December - the occupation of Serbia by the Austro-German and Bulgarian troops

1916

February 21 - December 21 - Battle of Verdun
August 27 - Romania enters the war on the side of the Entente
September 15 - for the first time in the battle on the Somme, the British used tanks

1917

February - landing of American troops in Cuba
February 27 - the beginning of the February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia
March 2 - abdication of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II from the throne
April 6 - US declares war on Germany
July 29 - Greece enters the war on the side of the Entente August 14 - Declaration of war on Germany by the Chinese government
October 25 - October armed coup in Russia. The overthrow of the Provisional Government. The coming to power of the Bolsheviks

1918

5 January Founding of the Fascist Party of Germany in Munich
January 5-6 - convocation and dissolution of the Constituent Assembly in Russia
January - the beginning of the armed movement for independence in Turkestan
March 3 - signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany. Russia's exit from the war
March 12 - transfer of the capital of Russia from Petrofada to Moscow
March 14 - the beginning of the intervention of the Entente countries against Russia
April 30 - proclamation of the Turkestan Autonomous Republic as part of the RSFSR
July 16 - the execution of Nicholas II and members of his family in Yekaterinburg
August 14 - English landing in Baku
August 15-16 - American landing in Vladivostok
October 4 - Proclamation of the Czechoslovak Republic
October 30 - Surrender of Turkey
November 3 - Austro-Hungarian surrender
November 9 - The overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic in Germany
November 11 - signing of the Armistice of Comliennes between
Germany and the Entente countries. End of World War I
1918-1920 - military intervention and civil war in Russia

1919

January 18, 1919 - January 21, 1920 - Paris Peace Conference
March 21 - proclamation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic (lasted until August 1)
April 1 - British troops left Transcaucasia
May 3 - June 3 - the liberation war of the people of Afghanistan against the British troops. August 8 - signed a peace treaty between England and Afghanistan
May 28 - the beginning of the liberation war of the Turkish people against the Anglo-Greek intervention
June 28 - Defeated Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles with the Entente powers that won World War I
September 19 - evacuation of the Entente troops from Arkhangelsk

1920

January 16 - the end of the blockade of Russia by the Entente countries
January 18-21 - Creation of the League of Nations
February 24 - the first mass rally in Munich of supporters of the fascist NSDAP
March 1 - Fascist dictatorship established in Hungary
April 26 - proclamation of the Khorezm People's Republic
May 16 - the occupation of Istanbul by the Entente troops
August 10 conclusion of the Treaty of Sevres (Ottoman Empire divided between England and France)
December - adoption of the GOELRO plan in Russia

1921

March - transition in Russia to the new economic policy (NEP)
March 18 - uprising of military sailors in Kronstadt
March 18 - signing of an agreement to end the Soviet-Polish war
August - the beginning of the new economic policy in the Turkestan ASSR
October 20 - Signing in Ankara of the Franco-Turkish agreement to end the war between France and Turkey

1922

February - withdrawal of American troops from Cuba
April-May - Genoa Conference. The beginning of the actual recognition of the RSFSR
October 25 - the liberation of Vladivostok from the Japanese invaders
October 28 - Fascist dictatorship established in Italy
Nov 23 - King of Italy grants Mussolini unlimited power
December 30 - formation of the USSR

1923

June 8-9 - Fascist coup in Bulgaria
July 24 - Declaration of Independence of Turkey
September 13 - Coup d'état in Spain. Establishment of the military-monarchist dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
October 6 - the liberation of Istanbul from the An-Tant invaders
October 29 - Turkey is declared a republic
November 9 - "beer putsch" in Bavaria. Hitler's attempt to establish a fascist dictatorship

1924

January 2 - February 1 - the formation of the Kuomintang party in China
March 18 - establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and England, Italy, Norway, Austria
April 20 - adoption of the constitution of the Republic of Turkey
July 16 - US adoption of the Dawes Plan
November 26 - Proclamation of the Mongolian People's Republic

1924-1927 - First Chinese Civil War

1925

January 21 - Japanese troops left the territory of the Far East
April 26 - Election of Field Marshal Hindenburg as President of the German Republic
July 1 - Transformation of the Guangzhou government into the national government of the ROC
December - the beginning of industrialization in the USSR

1926

April 24 - the conclusion of the Soviet-German agreement on non-aggression and neutrality
May 12-13 - coup d'état in Poland. Establishment of the mode of "rehabilitation * (recovery)

1927

Formation of the Indonesian National Party led by Sukarno
March 22 - Shanghai is liberated by the National Revolutionary Army
April 12 - counter-revolutionary coup by Chiang Kai-shek in Shanghai
May 27 - break of diplomatic relations between Great Britain and the USSR
August 1 - Second Chinese Civil War begins
The beginning of the Khujum movement in Uzbekistan (liberation of Muslim women)

1928

January - the beginning of the policy of emergency measures in order to withdraw the "surplus" grain in the village. Beginning of collectivization in Russia
September 1 - Albania is declared a monarchy
October 1 - adoption of a decision on the transition in the USSR to five-year plans for the development of the national economy. The first five-year plan was approved in April 1929.

1929

January 6 - military coup in Yugoslavia. Establishment of the military dictatorship of P. Zhivkovic
October 3 - The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is renamed Yugoslavia
October 3 - restoration of diplomatic relations between Great Britain and the USSR
October 24 - stock market crash in the US. Beginning of the global economic crisis
1929-1932 - carrying out the collectivization of agriculture in Uzbekistan

1930

January - "complete collectivization" and "liquidation of the kulaks as a class" began in the USSR
May 1 - opening of the Turkestan-Siberian railway (Turksib)

1931

April 14 - Overthrow of the monarchy in Spain
September 8 - Japanese invasion of Manchuria
October 31 - adoption of the "Statute of Westminster" granting sovereign rights to the dominions and the creation of the British Commonwealth of Nations
December 9 - adoption of the Republican Constitution in Spain

1932

March 9 - Proclamation of the state of Manchukuo
May 20 - Seizure of power in Cuba by the dictator Machado
June 25 - conclusion of a non-aggression pact between the USSR and Poland
November 29 - signing of the Soviet-French non-aggression pact
December - the introduction of the passport system in the USSR

1933

January 30 - P. Hindenburg appoints Hitler Chancellor. Establishment of a fascist dictatorship in Germany
February 27 - Nazis set fire to the Reichstag building in Berlin
February 28 - the publication of an emergency decree of the Nazi government on the abolition of the articles of the Weimar constitution, which guaranteed freedom of the individual, speech, press, assembly
March 23 - law on endowing the fascist government of Germany with emergency powers
March 27 - Japan's withdrawal from the Naii League
July 28 - establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Spain
August 12 - The overthrow of the power of the Cuban dictator Machado
September 2 - signing of a treaty of friendship, non-aggression and neutrality between Italy and the USSR
October 14 - Germany's exit from the League of Nations
November 16 - establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the USA

1934

January 20 - the establishment of the dictatorship of F. Batista in Cuba
May 19 - coup d'état and the establishment of a fascist dictatorship in Bulgaria
June 30 - "Night of the Long Knives" - the destruction of the opposition by Hitler
August 2 - Hitler is declared "Fuhrer and Reich Chancellor of the German people"
September 18 - USSR joins the League of Nations

1935

March 2 - the introduction of a new official name of Persia - Iran
March 16 - in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, the fascist government of Germany adopted a law on universal military service
August 2 - Separation of Burma from India
October 3 - Fascist Italy invades Ethiopia. Beginning of the Italo-Ethiopian War
December 13 - Restoration of the 1923 constitution in Egypt

1936

March 7 - entry of German troops into the Rhine demilitarized zone
July 18 - the beginning of the fascist rebellion in Spain, which marked the beginning of the civil war, which lasted from July 1936 to March 1939.
November 25 - signing of the "Anti-Comintern Pact" by Germany and Japan
July 7 - Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War with Japan's invasion of China
November - Italy joins the Anti-Comintern Pact (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis)

1938

February 10 - the abolition of the Constitution of 1923 in Romania by King Karol and the establishment of the "royal dictatorship" regime
March 12 - Austria is occupied by German troops
March 14 - Austria joins Germany ("Anschluss")
July 29 - August 11 - the defeat of the Japanese troops, who invaded the territory of the USSR near Lake Khasan
September 28 - the beginning of military mobilization in Germany September 29-30 - signing at a conference in Munich by representatives of England, France, Germany and Italy an agreement on the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia
September 30 - signing of the Anglo-German declaration
on non-aggression and on the peaceful settlement of disputes
October 1 - the entry of German troops into the territory of the Sudetenland
November 2 - Hungary captures part of Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine
November 10 - Kemal Atatürk, founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey, dies
December 6 - signing of the Franco-German declaration of non-aggression and the peaceful settlement of disputes

1939

February 24 - Hungary joins the Anti-Comintern Pact
February 27 - England and France recognize Franco's fascist government in Spain
March 14 - the occupation of Chekhin by German troops
March 22 - the creation of the "Steel Pact" - the military bloc of Italy and Germany
March 26 - Fascist troops enter Madrid
April 7-13 - Italy occupies Albania
April 28 - Termination by Germany of the non-aggression pact with Poland and the naval agreement with England
May 11 - August 31 - Soviet-Japanese conflict in the area of ​​the Khalchin-Gol River (MPR)
May 22 - the conclusion of the "Pact of Steel" between Italy and Germany
August 23 - the conclusion of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact for a period of 10 years
September 1 - Nazi Germany attacked Poland. Beginning of World War II
September 2-3 - England and France declare war on Germany
September 17 - in accordance with the secret clauses of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact, the USSR begins to send troops into Poland
September 28 - signing of the Soviet-German Treaty of Friendship and Border between the USSR and Germany
October 2 - suppression of the last centers of resistance of the German army in Poland
November 30 - the beginning of the Soviet-Finnish war. It continued until March 12, 1940.
December 13 - The League of Nations declares the USSR an aggressor country for the war with Finland and excludes it from the League of Nations

1940

April 9 - German invasion of Denmark and Norway
May 10 - German invasion of Belgium
May 14 - German invasion of Holland
June 14 - the entry of Nazi troops into Paris
July 1 - Italy declares war on England and France
July 1-August 19 - the offensive of Italian troops in North Africa
August 15 - the beginning of massive German air raids on England ("battle for England")
September 22 - German-Finnish military agreement
about Finland's participation in the war against the USSR
27 September - Germany, Italy and Japan sign the Tripartite Pact in Berlin
October 12 - the entry of fascist troops into Romania
October 28 - Italy attacked Greece
November 20, Hungary joins the Tripartite Pact of Fascist States
November 23 - Romania joins the Tripartite Pact of Fascist States
December 18 - Hitler signs directive No. 21 on the war against the USSR (Barbarossa plan)

1941

March 1 - Bulgaria joins the Tripartite Pact of Fascist States
March 11 - adoption of the Lend-Lease Act by the US Congress
March - Yugoslavia joins the Tripartite Pact of Fascist States
April 6 - Germany and its allies invade Greece
June 10 - Italy declares war on England and France
June 22 - German attack on the USSR
June 22 - July 20 - defense of the Brest Fortress
July 12 - the conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and Great Britain on joint actions against Germany
July 10 - September 10 - the battle for Smolensk September - the beginning of the blockade of Leningrad (finally liquidated in January 1944)
September 30 - the beginning of the battle near Moscow
September 29 - October 1 - Conference of representatives of the USSR, USA and Great Britain in Moscow
December 6 - England declares war on Finland, Hungary and Romania
December 7 - Japanese fleet attacks Pearl Harbor, Hong Kong, Malaya, Philippines. Beginning of the Pacific War
December 8 - US declares war on Japan
December 8-9 - Thailand is occupied by Japanese troops
December 9-10 - China declares war on Japan, Germany and Italy
December 11 - Germany and Italy declare war on the US AND December - Germany, Italy and Japan sign
agreement on joint military action against the United States and England
December - Panama, Cuba, Haiti, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic declare war on Germany, Italy and Japan

1942

January 1 - signing in Washington of the Declaration of 26 states on the joint struggle against the states of the Tripartite Pact - Germany, Italy and Japan
January 29 - signing by the USSR, Britain and Iran in Tehran of an agreement on alliance and cooperation
February 15 - Japanese capture of Singapore
May 5 - Occupation of the Philippine Islands by Japanese troops
July 17, 1942 - February 2, 1943 - Battle of Stalingrad
July - the first armored train "Uzbekistan" was built at the Tashkent steam locomotive repair plant, which took part in the Battle of Kursk, in the liberation of Kiev, Warsaw, Brandenburg
October 23 - the beginning of the offensive of the British troops near El Alamein (Egypt)
November 8 - landing of Anglo-American troops in the ports of North Africa

1943

January 13 - announcement in Germany of total mobilization
February 2 - the encirclement and liquidation near Stalingrad of a group of Nazi troops under the command of Paulus
July 5 - August 23 - Battle of Kursk
July 24-25 - the overthrow of the fascist government in Italy and the arrest of Mussolini
September 3 - announcement of the surrender of Italy
October 13 - Italy declares (Badoglio government) war on Germany
October 19-30 - Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers of the USSR, USA and Great Britain
November 28 - December 1 - Tehran Conference of the Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain

1944

March 26 - the exit of Soviet troops to the state border of the USSR along the Prut River
June 4 - Allied forces enter Rome
June 6 - Allied troops land in Normandy. Opening a second front
September 12 - surrender of Romania
September 4 - Statement by the Finnish government about the severance of relations with Germany
September 9 - the government of the Fatherland Front comes to power in Bulgaria. Bulgaria declares war on Germany
October 19 - announcement in Germany of the military mobilization of the "Hitler Youth" and "Volkssturm"
October 20 - liberation of Belgrade
November 10-11 - retreat of German troops from Greece
November 29 - completion of the liberation of Albania by the People's Liberation Army

1945

January 12 - the beginning of the Vistula-Oder operation
January 20 - Hungary declares war on Germany
February 4-11 - Crimean Conference (in Yalta) of the heads of government of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA
April 4 - liberation of Hungary from Nazi troops
April 16 - May 8 - Battle of Berlin
April 25 - meeting of Soviet and American troops near the city of Torgau (on the Elbe River)
April 30 - Hitler's suicide
May 2 - Surrender of German troops in Italy
May 2 - the defeat of the Berlin group of the Wehrmacht
May 5-9 - popular uprising in Prague and its liberation
May 9 - Signing of the Act of unconditional surrender of the German armed forces in Karlshorst
May 15 - cessation of hostilities in Yugoslavia
May 15 - cancellation by the government of Japan of agreements with Nazi Germany
June 26 - Signing of the UN Charter at the San Francisco Conference
July 17 - August 2 - Potsdam Conference of the leaders of the three states - the USSR, Great Britain and the USA
August 6 - Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and August 9 - Nagasaki
August 8 - signing by the governments of the United States, Britain and France of an agreement on the establishment of an International Military Tribunal to try the main war criminals
August 10 - Mongolia declares war on Japan
August 21 - US termination of lend-lease supplies
September 2 - signing in Tokyo by representatives of Japan of the Act of unconditional surrender
September 2 - Proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
September 3 - liberation of Manchuria and Korea from Japanese occupation
September 3 - end of World War II
October 24 - the entry into force of the UN Charter. This day is celebrated as United Nations Day
November 20 - the beginning of the Nuremberg trials of the main German war criminals

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World history in dates (1914-1945) Updated: December 3, 2016 By: admin

It is possible to write the history of the world in such a way that almost its main content will be wars between clans, tribes, countries and empires. Countless wars, documented and unrecorded, have been going on for at least the last 10,000 years. Of course, peace is a more natural state than war, but war and peace are connected by a causal relationship. Thus, the duration of the peace period may depend on the outcome of the war that preceded it and the observance of the agreements concluded. Peace between the two states of a region is often the result of agreement with an informal hierarchy that has been built up as a result of either war or military threat. In Europe in 1914, unfortunately, there was no longer an agreed unofficial hierarchy.

The last major war in Europe was between France and Prussia in 1870-1871. - was fleeting; and so it was thought that future wars were also likely to be short. What led to World War I was the belief that war itself was still a quick and effective way to solve problems. Both sides hoped to win. They also hoped for a quick victory, as military equipment seemed to have stepped forward as never before.

DEADLOCK WAR

The war began in August 1914 and was expected to end before or shortly after Christmas. When Germany and its ally, Austria-Hungary, clashed with Russia in Eastern Europe, and the Germans began fighting the French and British armies on the plains of northern France, and the Austrians clashed with the Serbs, it seemed that the war would quickly roll to its imminent end. Germany was winning at first, but her losses were enormous.

The firepower of the newly introduced machine guns and heavy horse-drawn cannons was so devastating that thousands of soldiers approaching the enemy fell as if decimated, and thousands of soldiers who took their place fell too. Soldiers on most battlefields had to spend months digging hundreds of miles of trenches and building barbed wire to protect themselves. Long trenches, deep enough for a full-length soldier to remain invisible to the enemy, were a kind of shield.

This slowed down the movement of the opposing armies, and the war became defensive. Any attempt by one of the armies to get out of the saving trenches and go on the assault usually ended with the capture of only a narrow strip of land, after which a hail of shells and bullets from the opposite side forced the daredevils to retreat. On days like these, casualties numbered in the tens of thousands.

On most fronts, a stalemate developed in the last weeks of 1914 that threatened to turn the Great War of 1914 into the Great War of 1914-1915; and the months continued to drag on. In April 1915, in an attempt to break the deadlock, the British and French, together with the Australians and New Zealanders, opened a new front on the Turkish coast near Gallipoli, at the exit from the Dardanelles. They expected to win a victory over Turkey in a few weeks, pass on ships through the liberated Dardanelles to the southern Russian ports and deliver weapons and ammunition to equip the huge Russian armies. The Russian armies, in turn, were expected to push back the Germans on the Eastern Front. The Turks, however, dug in, blocking this sector of hostilities as well, and thus forced the attackers to retreat at the end of the year.

The stalemate war defied the predictions of all but a few gifted military leaders and armchair strategists. Nothing like it has ever happened in the history of mankind. It is customary to blame the generals for everything. But in most belligerent countries, even soldiers' mothers, wives, and girlfriends at first welcomed the war, convinced by propaganda that this continuous bloodshed would miraculously end in the defeat of the exhausted enemy.

War, with its unpredictability and volatility, comes with many ifs. If Russia had been helped in 1915, the tsar and his ministers might have been able to maintain control over their rebellious country. But three years of military defeats in a row deprived the leg of the already limping king. In 1917, two revolutions quickly followed one after the other, and Lenin and the communists seized power. Russia left the war.

At the beginning of 1918, Germany still had a chance to win the war or negotiate an acceptable peace. The United States, which entered the war at a late stage, was hardly expected to have a strong influence on its course. In addition, the main ally of Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, still firmly held the mountain front line, preventing the Italians from breaking through it. With great enthusiasm, the Germans launched an offensive, as a result of which in March 1918 they advanced strongly and approached Paris.

Gradually, military luck turned away from Germany. This was due to the fact that the enemies were more fortunate with access to food and raw materials, with the ability to replenish ammunition and manpower. Its front lines sagged as if under hammer blows. By September 1918, Germany was left with almost no allies. The Bulgarians capitulated. The Turks, who fought to maintain their empire in the Middle East, were close to capitulation. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was on the verge of collapse, and in October both Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia declared themselves republics. In Germany, as winter approached, the fighting spirit dried up not only among civilians, but even among the military. There was not enough clothing and food: the enemy blockade made itself felt. On November 3, 1918, German sailors mutinied in Kiel. On November 9, the socialist revolution swept through Munich, while the Emperor of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm, abdicated in Berlin. Two days later, on November 11, Germany and its allies signed an armistice.

For the soldiers it was the most terrible war the world had ever known; for the civilian population, the Taiping Rebellion was even worse. Of the 8,500,000 soldiers and sailors who died in World War I, German casualties were the heaviest, followed by Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, and then Britain and her empire. In addition, over 20,000,000 soldiers were wounded; and this list of dead and maimed does not include the probably five million civilians whose death was a direct result of the war. From cramped Moscow apartments to New Zealand sheep farms, millions of mantelpieces were filled with black-and-white photographs of frowns or smiles of youths killed in a war now called the Great War, unaware that an even worse war awaited the world in just twenty years. .

Without this Great War, there might not have been a Russian revolution and the victory of communism. But without her, also energetic monarchs in all their splendor would have continued to rule in Vienna, Berlin - Potsdam and St. Petersburg, and the Sultan would have become the head of the Turkish Empire - an empire that also disappeared. If there had been no war, perhaps no one would have recognized Hitler's name, since it was born of the bitterness of Germany's defeat, just as Mussolini became dictator of Italy largely because he played on the post-war disillusionment of his people.

At the negotiating table at the peace conference in Versailles in 1919, high expectations and a thirst for revenge met. Many nations seized the opportunity to create their own states. It was a cartographer's picnic. Now in Europe, where on the eve of the war there were 20 states and countries, 31 appeared. Some of the new states were dwarf, and some, such as Poland and Hungary, were large. The majority tried on democracy, not always successfully. Some have turned into dictatorships.

This war, which turned out to be much longer than it seemed in 1914, was a blow to the optimism that had taken root in Europe in those relatively peaceful, prosperous and civilized 99 years that had passed since the defeat of Napoleon. Yet many Europeans did not lose heart. In Geneva, a permanent organization was established - the League of Nations, in which disputes between states were resolved through diplomatic negotiations. This parliament of the world was probably the most daring experiment in the history of all the states of that time. The hope of the liberals and idealists of the world, it has turned into an ordinary debating club.

Without the Great War, Britain and Europe would have continued to dominate the financial sphere, but during the war they were forced to take out loans. So the United States, especially during the years of its military neutrality, began to finance military operations. One of the reasons for the approaching global economic depression was the new financial power acquired by the United States in the 1920s. Relatively inexperienced as a world leader, resilient to booms and busts, and happy to watch the Wall Street stock market orchestrate economic and financial activity, they led a shaky world into chronic instability. Another reason for the collapse of the economy, which became apparent in 1930, was that Britain was trying to restore its financial system to its pre-war form and was struggling to keep prices stable. But these attempts should not be judged too harshly. After such a disastrous war, a determined attempt to glue together the pieces of a broken peaceful past was almost inevitable.

in many countries in the 1920s. the share of the unemployed in the most difficult months exceeded 10%. This was partly the result of disorganization caused by the speed of change. New industrial districts and businesses sprang up and fell apart, the movement of workers from farms to factories continued, but a factory was more likely to suffer drastic drops than a farm. On the farm, when prices fell, workers continued to work for much lower wages, or at least they could subsist on what they grew themselves. When there was a sharp decline in the automotive, tire, textile industries, the workers stayed at home and had nothing to live on. Governments and economists did not know exactly how to overcome the depression. The prevailing view was that they didn't have to do anything and that the economy, having swallowed the cure of high unemployment and low prices and incomes, would quickly recover on its own.

The collapse of the Wall Street stock market in October 1929 sounds like a fire alarm from today's vantage point. Financial confidence plummeted and people stopped buying, which in turn led to further job cuts. Unemployment was rising; in some industrialized countries, its level in 1932, when the economy hit the bottom, exceeded 30%. The economic depression has taken on unprecedented proportions. It has become a nutritious soup for communism and fascism. And this, in turn, led to the Second World War, which is increasingly viewed as a consequence of the incompleteness of the First.

Hitler in Germany and Stalin in Russia forged the coming war. They played a decisive role in unleashing the war in 1939, and for a short time they were allies.

Adolf Hitler was born in a riverside town in Austria, where his father held a small post at customs. A failed artist, he took something from the anti-Semitism of Vienna and something from the seething of Munich patriotism at the beginning of the First World War. Drafted into the German army, he received the Iron Cross for bravery on the Western Front. One of those German soldiers who, on their return to civilian life in 1918, were stricken by a decline in morale in the rear, when this spirit was still strong in many parts of the hard-pressed army, he gave vent to his feeling that he had been betrayed by taking up amateur activities in the backyard of politics. In 1919, at the age of 30, he became head of a small Bavarian political party, the German National Socialist Workers' Party. The National Socialists formed their own small army, which excelled in street fighting with Marxists and other leftists.

Hitler knew his Germany. His rhetoric, bewitching thanks to cunning manipulation, warmed the hearts of many Germans who felt that their state and their world had been unjustly destroyed in 1918. He put such physical and emotional energy into his speeches that after a two-hour speech his shirt was soaked through with sweat. The newly introduced loudspeakers and radio helped spread his ideas. Few party leaders in Europe have learned to use the latest developments so quickly.

World depression in the early 1930s instilled anxiety and premonition of chaos in people. Hitler played on these fears. Many Germans saw in Hitler a firm hand that could restore law and order. Fear of communism won him growing support from small farmers and shopkeepers. He and his speeches appealed to German pride and exploited the widespread resentment that Germany had been unfairly beaten in a game at which it far excelled the rest, namely war.

In the 1930 elections, the percentage of those who voted for Hitler's party increased. In 1932, the ranks of its supporters doubled again, and it became the largest German political party. The following January, she joined a coalition of small parties on the right, and Hitler was formally appointed Chancellor. He soon became a de facto dictator. The persecution of Jews, the defeat of trade unions, the destruction of civil liberties began. In 1939, the aged president died, and Hitler, by popular consent, gained complete control over the country.

He was practically unprepared for power; he disliked administrative and paper work. Before coming to power, the highest position he had to hold was an army corporal.

EASTERN DICTATOR

Joseph Stalin is not the real name of the then ruler of Russia. An organizer and agitator, Iosif Dzhugashvili, who was serving hard labor in Siberia for political activities, he took on the pseudonym Stalin shortly after the victory of the 1917 revolution. Editing the communist newspaper Pravda, he was aware of all affairs and gradually gained power. After Lenin's death in 1924, after becoming a key figure in the leadership of the party, he began to destroy personal and imaginary opponents. He outlined a strategy to strengthen the armed forces, and in the economy began the implementation of the first five-year plan in 1928. Although the new Soviet Union continued to suffer from many economic ills and listen to the muffled murmurs of the discontented, there was no official unemployment in it, and practically all free hands were attached to one case or another. The Great Depression bypassed the Soviet Union, and thanks to this, its prestige soared unusually.

Thanks to the construction of new power plants, factories and mines, Russia has become an industrial power. Stalin brought to an end the most dramatic changes in agriculture ever undertaken by one ruler. He turned private farms into collective farms - a surprising and decisive change, given that far more people were involved in agriculture in Russia than in any other European state, and the bulk of them were possessive of their land and disgusted with Stalin's collective farms. . Peasants who resisted the policy of collectivism were expelled, starved or killed.

Stalin believed that communism, and indeed himself, was in danger of destruction if he was not ruthless. In peacetime, the security forces destroyed or exiled a large number of citizens of the state. Nevertheless, national patriotism under Stalin was higher than during the reign of the tsar. The stamina and courage that Russian soldiers showed in World War II are simply amazing.

Hitler and Stalin had much in common, including the fact that both came to power as outsiders: Hitler was an Austrian and Stalin was a Georgian. Both were practically unknown and of little influence at the age of 35, and both were hopelessly underestimated by opponents. Hitler's rearmament of Germany took France and Britain by surprise, as did Stalin's rearmament of Russia. Both leaders had an innate ability to lie plausibly to their people and the world. They were the field marshals of propaganda in an era when radio and cinema were amplified.

Both Stalin and Hitler, and the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, who seized power in 1922, were determined to rewrite the results of the First World War, and, if necessary, to continue it. In 1939, a long-awaited opportunity appeared, as if intended for them.

Traditionally in Europe a long and hard war has led to a long period of peace. By establishing a clear hierarchy of the main participating states, the war with indisputable results made it possible to solve many problems through diplomacy. In addition, in the first decades after the war, the memory of terrible hardships and human losses was still fresh: in such a situation, diplomacy as a way to resolve disputes between states was preferable to war. Just as the end of World War I—optimistically seen as the war that would end all wars—was followed by an extended period of relative peace in Europe after the undisputed victory in the long Napoleonic Wars, the consequences of an even more rosy peace were expected. The tragedy of this war is that in retrospect it seems completely pointless. Her conquests were soon lost, and a new war was about to begin.

Why was the victory so short-lived? Unfortunately for the victors - and for world peace - the combined forces that won World War I soon dissipated. The United States, whose industrial power played a vital role even before the first American soldiers went to the battlefield by sea, became internally distant after the end of the war. They have withdrawn themselves, closing their eyes and ears to Europe. Japan, which had provided great support with its naval forces at the start of the war, also retreated. Thus, the two major Powers, interested in maintaining the victory won with their help, did not use their weight against the defeated Powers. If this has ever happened after a serious war, it is extremely rare. In addition, Italy, also fighting on the winning side, was disappointed that it did not receive German colonies in Africa and other benefits promised by the Allies. Italy became the third victorious country to undermine a hard-won peace treaty. The fourth was Russia. She fought on the side of the victors until March 1918, when, exhausted and torn apart by the revolution, she withdrew from the war with Germany. As a result of this war, she lost or ceded a huge territory, including Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Thus, she had an incentive to reshape the new Europe that had taken shape in 1919.

Of all the powerful nations that were victorious in 1918, only Britain and France had good reason to stick to the peace treaty, disarm Germany, and see to it that she remained demilitarized. And it incredibly blurred the achievements of wartime.

Then came the Great Depression, and a feeling of helplessness settled in many of the industrial nations that fought in that war. The Depression handed power to Hitler, who confidently led his country to violate the peace treaty. When he began rearming, the League of Nations was too weak and divided to intervene. In March 1936, Hitler again flouted the treaty by occupying the Rhine basin. If France and Britain had taken immediate joint action, Hitler's soldiers would probably have had to move out of the captured area.

Hitler continued to rearm. The construction of autobahns, or highways, and the rebuilding of the automobile industry contributed no less than rearmament to the destruction of unemployment in Germany. German morale and self-respect were restored. In March 1938, Hitler's troops entered Austria. In October, he suddenly occupied the German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia. Page after page, he crossed out the Treaty of Versailles. The country that lost the most as a result of the First World War regained the bulk of its territorial losses in Europe.

A new war began in 1939 with Hitler's invasion of Poland. The Soviet Union took part in its division. Poland was crushed before France and Britain, who had promised her support, could intervene. In 1940-1941. Hitler captured almost all of Central and Western Europe, with the exception of Italy and Romania, which were its allies, as well as Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Sweden and Switzerland, which remained neutral. He unexpectedly, taking Stalin by surprise, invaded Russia, and by the end of 1941 the vanguard of his troops reached the outskirts of Moscow. But the further the Germans advanced, the more vulnerable the supply lines for their troops became. Gradually it became clear that Hitler's invasion of Russia would be a turning point in the war, in which until then luck had accompanied him.

The Second World War consisted of two separate wars: the fronts of one were mainly in Europe, and the second unfolded in East Asia. The Asiatic war began earlier, with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932, and flared up even more strongly in 1937, when Japan began its occupation of the eastern half of China. Hitler's astonishing victory in Western Europe in 1940 weakened the British, Dutch, and French colonies in Southeast Asia and the American bases in the former Spanish Philippines. Japan took advantage of this weakness. In December 1941, she launched surprise attacks on territories and bases from Burma and Hong Kong to Pearl Harbor.

The original two wars - European and Asian - merged into a common war, with Germany and Japan on one side and the United States, Britain, China and most of the world's other nations on the other. It became a world war, while the First World War was a predominantly European conflict, at times extending beyond the borders of this territory.

None of the previous events of peacetime or wartime so vividly reflected the contraction of the world. Planes and radio easily crossed the continents. The Pacific Ocean was as easy to cross as the Mediterranean was in the age of the galleys. A sign of a new era of mechanical warfare was that during the decisive battle in the Coral Sea, off the east coast of Australia in May 1942, the two opposing fleets - Japanese and American - were out of sight of each other. It was just that planes took off from the ships, which bombed enemy warships, thereby bringing victory closer.

In the last months of 1944, after almost five years of war, its end became visible. Germany and Japan suffered a crushing defeat. But it was difficult to predict when it would become final - in 6 or 36 months. Few events in human history are as unpredictable as the beginning of the world.

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Report at the scientific-practical conference "War, mortally dangerous for Russia ...", held on October 27-28, 2008 by the Foundation for Historical Perspective in conjunction with the Library-Foundation "Russian Abroad".

“According to the superficial fashion of our time,” wrote Churchill, “it is customary to interpret the tsarist system as a blind, rotten tyranny. But the analysis of 30 months of war with Germany and Austria should have corrected these lightweight ideas. We can measure the strength of the Russian Empire by the blows it endured, by the disasters it endured, by the inexhaustible forces it developed... Holding the victory already in its hands, it fell to the ground alive, being devoured by worms.”

Even judging by this statement, it is hard not to notice how much our historiography lacks a deep understanding of the First World War. Russian Soviet and post-Soviet historiography, unfortunately, did not pay attention to many aspects that led to the war. And not so much because of scientific negligence - there are examples of excellent work of scientists on documents - but because of some ideological constraint. Naturally, the paradigm of understanding historical processes at that time was mainly aimed at highlighting those of them that, one way or another, promoted the world to change the former socio-political system. Such concepts as "national interests" in relation to the people as a nation - when rich and poor, old and young, man and woman - all feel like a single whole, a single successively living organism with common goals, historical experiences, in the Soviet historiographies were not encouraged. And therefore, taking into account the huge research work that, in spite of everything, Russian science did in the Soviet era, today it is necessary to look at this period in a new way, through a different prism.
First of all, it must be emphasized that the Russian army during the First World War, or the Second Patriotic War, as it was called at that time, was truly popular. Moreover, it was much more popular than any armies of today's democratic countries, where the elites shy away from serving in them, and the backbone is made up of those who simply cannot realize themselves in other areas. In the Russian army of that time, only half of the officers consisted of the nobility. The officers were also people of other classes. They were promoted to the highest military ranks from privates for such awards as four St. George Crosses, which my grandfather was awarded.

The question of the inevitability of the First World War is, of course, rhetorical. Too many powerful forces were interested in it: from governments dreaming of a redistribution of the world, revolutionaries, all kinds of internationals, enemies of the Christian church to the Vatican itself, which, together with England, intrigued against its own spiritual daughter - the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

A stolen victory or a new look at the First World War. Cycle "Tsarist Russia"

Documentary film from the cycle Tsarist Russia. Two and a half million Russian soldiers and officers gave their lives for Russia in the 1914 war. But so far, our country has not erected a single monument to them. After the revolution of 1917, the exploits and sacrifices of millions of Russian people were consigned to oblivion, all military graves of those times were destroyed, and the events of the First World War until recently were presented in Russian history only as a prologue to the great October Socialist Revolution ...

But the main strategic aspirations by the beginning of the twentieth century converged on the European maritime borders of Russia, in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. The interests of the formed triangle - Britain, Russia and Germany - clashed in the Balkans, the Black Sea region, the straits region, and the Baltic.

Doesn't this remind us of today's realities? Don’t we now see a reflection of those very contradictions – the pushing of Russia away from the Baltic, from the Black Sea, from the region of the straits, which have now become naval approaches to the main region of the world’s resources, to the ways of transporting hydrocarbons.

For Russia at that moment it was absolutely impossible to stand aside, because its entire three-hundred-year history was collapsing. The subsequent events of the 20th century prompt us to appreciate the wisdom of the notorious note by Pyotr Nikolaevich Durnovo (he would later be characterized by Soviet historiography as an arch-reactionary) addressed to the Sovereign on the eve of the war, literally on its eve. This note shows that Durnovo foresaw both the revolution and literally everything that Russia would survive. And most importantly, here are these words of Durnovo: “Any sacrifices and the main burden of the war that will fall on us, and the role of a battering ram prepared for Russia, punching a hole in the thickness of the German defense, will be in vain. For we are fighting on the side of our geopolitical adversary - Great Britain, which will not allow any serious gains.

The little-known telegrams of Nicholas II to his dear "cousin Willy" - the German Kaiser Wilhelm II - speak of the fact that Russia, after the Sarajevo assassination, tried with all its might to refrain from war. For example, this: “A shameful war has been declared on a weak country ... I foresee that very soon, yielding to the pressure exerted on me, I will be forced to take extreme measures ... In an effort to avert such a disaster as a European war, I implore you, in the name of our old friendship, do everything you can to prevent your allies from going too far."

A few years earlier, shortly after the Bosnian crisis, the chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, F. Conrad von Hötzendorf, noted that the invasion of Serbia by Austria would undoubtedly cause a speech on the side of the first Russia. And then casus foederis will come for Germany - a reason for fulfilling allied obligations.

And 15 years before World War I, the well-known politician of Kaiser Germany B. von Bülow, who became chancellor in 1906, wrote in his notes: “In a future war, we must push Russia away from Pontus Euxine and the Baltic Sea. From the two seas that gave her the position of a great power. We have to destroy its economic positions for at least 30 years, bomb its coasts.” Such documents make it meaningless to ornate that the war, as the Bolsheviks wrote in their leaflets, was unnecessary, vain and incomprehensible.
Each of the internal political forces, despising the common interests and the fate of their own Fatherland, sought to extract only political benefits from the war. Therefore, the First World War, even by the alignment of these internal political forces, is a good lesson for today's politicians.
The aggravation of the contradictions between the states was brought to its apogee by a monstrous campaign against each other in the press, including the Russian one. The tsarist minister Sazonov condemned the “Germanism” of the Russian press, but it was incomparable with the Russophobic hysteria that began in the Prussian newspapers. This we must not forget.

The German historical impulse to redistribute the world is usually associated with the name of the "Iron Chancellor" Otto von Bismarck, who left something like a political testament, writing: "We have no enemies in the East." But it was precisely Otto von Bismarck who understood perfectly well: it is impossible to conquer Russia! A war with Russia is absolutely impossible: it will be long, protracted, and in the end it will be lost.

After Bismarck, the creator of a strong Germany, all further development of the political situation in the country went under the halo of his name. But the impulse that has formed in relation to the East and the Slavs, of course, makes one think about how unbridled ambition leads, ultimately, only to losses. An example of this is the fate of Germany and Austria after the First and Second World Wars. And this, too, must always be remembered.

As for the Anglo-German contradictions, it is impossible not to notice how they are obscured by Western historiography. In fact, the Anglo-German rivalry has greatly colored international relations since the early 20th century, including the post-World War II period. However, this circumstance escaped the field of view of Soviet historiography, which considered the entire non-socialist, capitalist world as something unified.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Russia, by its mere existence within its newly acquired borders, represented an unconditional new force - a force that was considered by Britain as a direct threat to its interests. How many British newspapers wrote that "the Cossack cavalry is about to cross the Pamirs (presumably, crossing the Hindu Kush), and invade the possessions of Britain in India"!
The contradictions between England and Russia, which, according to all estimates, at the end of the 19th century should have led to some kind of Anglo-Russian clash, were then vied with each other by both journalism and serious analytics.

However, completely different configurations began to take shape. And the beginning of such changes, according to documentarians, was laid by a letter from the Russian ambassador in Paris, Baron A.P. Morenheim, dated 1886. He, to the surprise of the Russian Central Office, reported that in the event of a possible clash between France and Germany, England would support France. And this is after three centuries of containment by Britain of its main rival on the continent - France!

There is nothing paradoxical in the fact that Bismarck, too, partly owes the first successes of his policy to the benevolent attitude of Britain. But his calculations on the longevity of this benevolence were shortsighted. The policy of England changed as soon as Germany began to take shape as the leading Central European, and then the world's highly industrial and military power.

But in order to contain Germany or prevent her rise, English naval power was not enough. As British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Gray said, for continental countries such as Russia and Germany, defeats at sea are not catastrophic. And in order for the defeat to be serious, a continental war between continental opponents is needed.

Thus, there is an obvious interest of Britain in a clash between Russia and the Central Powers, which, of course, does not remove responsibility from other participants in the conflict.
This is an extremely interesting topic, and little research has been done on it. The same, for example, can be said about such a component of the world cataclysm as the religious and philosophical confrontation - the task of destroying the last Christian monarchies in Europe, the complete change of the state concept to rationalistic secular states. For such a “trifle” as the religious and philosophical foundations of history was not present in the scientific thinking of even the most venerable historians.

Of course, historians must not fall into marginalism and be careful in their assessments, avoiding vulgar journalistic clichés about the "Masonic conspiracy" and so on. Nevertheless, one cannot ignore the fact that a huge number of movements, organizations of an ideological, as they would say today, ideological sense did not sympathize with their own governments, but with some idea of ​​​​bringing the world to an ideal model, born from the rationalistic consciousness of the philosophy of progress, which from the inside corrupted national communities. .

So, for example, in the Franco-Prussian war, all French liberals supported Prussia only because Protestant Prussia was for them a symbol of progress compared to backward Catholic France. Documents testify to this.
It is no coincidence that one of the patriarchs of British Balkan studies at the beginning of the 20th century, R.W. Seton-Watson (known for a number of serious works on the Eastern Question - one of the burning topics related to the redivision of the world at the end of the 19th century) wrote that the First World War was at the same time the redivision of the world, and the revolutions of 1789 and 1848! He does not mention the theme of the revolution of 1917, because he has in mind the shaking of the world with the ideas of overthrowing the monarchy and establishing secular republics.

On the maps of the "future", which were published by strategists 24 years before the First World War, Europe is very similar to today's. Instead of Christian monarchies - secular republics, Bohemia is separated from Austria, Germany is dismembered ... In the caricature of that time, all Christian monarchs are depicted being driven to the police station under a Jacobin red cap.

Another map has also been preserved, where instead of Russia it is indicated: "desert". Obviously, this was not a desert project in the sense of the destruction of the population, it was a dream to deprive Russia of the role of a system-forming element and turn its territory into material for the historical projects of others.

It can be said that the First World War, with the triangle of Anglo-German-Russian contradictions, with the collapse of Russia and the drama of the revolution, led to the fact that the twentieth century became, of course, the century of the Anglo-Saxons. Everything that the German potential failed in two world wars was excellently accomplished by the Anglo-Saxons, creating a buffer between the Slavs and the Teutons from small non-independent states from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, thereby again dividing Europe.
I must say that the projects of the post-war world, developed at the Versailles Conference, also need a new understanding with the study of archives and documentary publications. This is prompted even by touching the materials and transcripts of the "Council of Ten" of the Paris Conference, which, in fact, developed the Treaty of Versailles. The Inquiery group, led by Colonel House, that unofficial head of American foreign policy, the alter ego of President Thomas Woodrow Wilson, played a huge role in this future world project.

But this is not even amazing, but the fact that every day began with reading telephone messages from M. Litvinov, a representative of the Bolsheviks, who, having settled quietly in Stockholm, was an unofficial ambassador of the Bolshevik government and was in constant contact with the Anglo-Saxon arbitrators of the Versailles Treaty. Litvinov, in one of his telephone messages, even suggested the annexation of some Russian territories in exchange for the fact that the Entente would withdraw its troops from Arkhangelsk and from the northern territories, surrendering the White Army to the mercy of the Red.

At the same time, at the Versailles Conference, those configurations that were beneficial to Britain were obviously being laid. She could not come to terms with the acquisitions of Peter the Great in the Baltic. Already at Versailles, everything was done to consolidate the loss of the Baltic states by revolutionary Russia.
Documents and records of negotiations give rise to the feeling that the Bolsheviks then “surrendered” the Baltic states. And that is why the United States did not fully recognize the restoration of the Baltic republics as part of the USSR. Although until 1917 no one disputed the belonging of these territories to historical Russia. Obviously, the West believed that it was possible to "stand" on what had once been promised by the self-proclaimed authorities of the country, let's note, then they were not even recognized by the West and did not control the entire territory.

S. Sazonov, in his memoirs of the First World War, published in 1925, predicted: “What the international imposed on the Russian people to refuse the debt of honor and renounce the precepts of history, will become clear only to future generations.” And, decades later, in 1991, we experienced a parade of sovereignties that counted their independence precisely from 1918 ...

It is to our contemporaries that history shows what the shameful Treaty of Brest really meant for Russia. Then, with one stroke of the pen, Russia lost everything for which she shed blood in World War I and for which Soviet soldiers shed blood later in the Great Patriotic War.

“Deadly dangerous for Russia,” Durnovo called the imminent world war. He perfectly imagined that the war, in the economic conditions in which Russia found itself, would certainly lead to a revolution, and the revolution would spread to Russia's rival, Germany. And so it happened. The victory of Germany will destroy the German economy, Durnovo wrote in his note to the Sovereign, and the victory of Russia - the Russian economy. No one will be able to compensate for the damage with reparations. But the main thing is that the peace treaty, in case of victory, will be dictated by the interests of England, which will not allow any important territorial acquisitions by Russia, except, perhaps, Galicia. And then P. Durnovo warned: “Only a madman can annex Galicia. Whoever annexes Galicia will lose the empire and Russia itself will become a small Russia. His foresight is amazing, because this is exactly what happened in our time, in the late 1990s.

Stalin annexed Galicia, forgetting that since 1349 it did not share the fate with Orthodox Ukraine and is a completely different cultural and historical type, in which the self-identification of a Ukrainian is “anti-Moscovitism”. We are seeing the consequences of this thoughtless step today. The current position of Poland, eternally restless when it comes to the harm to Russia, is quite understandable to those who are well aware of the works of Polish Pan-Germanists, published in Krakow, in Austria-Hungary on the eve and during the First World War.

True, the founder of the Institute of Red Professors and Vulgar Class Sociology in Historical Science M. Pokrovsky argues that “the German predator was still smaller and lower in flight than its rivals, and the war was directly provoked by the Russian party and the Serbian military, who even months before it began were preparing for the partition of Austria-Hungary" and, as Pokrovsky hints, were behind the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. He makes no mention of the German project Mitteleuropa, based on the doctrine and writings of Pan-Germanists such as Friedrich Naumann, who openly preached in the Reichstag and were actively published in Berlin and Vienna.
It was about creating a German superstate with varying degrees of state unity between foreign territories included in it, up to the straits and Baghdad. Sazonov called this project the "Berlin Caliphate", in which the Kaiser became the "gatekeeper of the straits" instead of the Turkish Sultan.

The pro-German Poles echoed this doctrine. Professor of the Jagiellonian University of Krakow, von Strazhevsky, considered it a historical axiom that "Russia, pushed aside in the Pacific Ocean, seized on the predatory Near-Asian and Pan-Slavist plans that were thwarted by Poland." According to him, "with its thousand-year belonging to Western European Christian culture in all areas of public life," Poland stands immeasurably higher than Russia, which, with its Byzantine-Asiatic character, is "the main enemy of all European culture."

It is not out of place to recall how already today, in his interview in September 2005, the well-known modern Polish historian Pavel Vecherkovich expressed regret that Poland did not agree with Hitler. Then she would have taken part in the parade of the victorious Polish-German troops on Red Square. Terminology and thinking has not changed since the First World War: Russia is the "northern bear", the direct heir to the conquest aspirations of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan.

However, we must remember that "the opinion of Poland about Russia," as Engels wrote to Vera Zasulich in the nineteenth century, "is the opinion of the West."

Historiography, its tone and accents in the 20th century surprisingly change depending on the ideological and worldview paradigm. During the Cold War, even in historical writings, they begin to accuse Russia of allegedly being the main culprit in unleashing the First World War. The documents, however, say otherwise. Even at the Versailles conference, when it seemed that all the blame could be placed on the absent Russia, the commission to establish responsibility for the outbreak of the war categorically decided: The First World War was unleashed for the sake of redistributing the world precisely by the Central Powers and their satellites.

Russian scientists today urgently need to initiate major historical conferences with Western colleagues. In the scientific community, which can be seen by working abroad, in principle there is much more decency and objectivity, a willingness to admit the truth of facts and documents, than in the Western press. Discussions in serious audiences are both interesting and fruitful.

However, unfortunately, the achievements of Western European science itself are not always reflected in textbooks. They still suggest between the lines that Russia is a loser in world history.
And in Russia itself, inattention to the study of the period of the First World War led to significant distortions in the historical consciousness of society. But the lack of successive historical consciousness is a weakness of any state. When a nation cannot find agreement on any issue of the past, present and future, it is unable to realize its historical interests and easily succumbs to alien projects and ideas. But navigable rivers and ice-free ports, access to the sea are equally necessary for the monarchies of the 18th century and the republics of the 20th, communist regimes and democracies of the 21st.

The split in society before the First World War largely predetermined the losses and losses that we suffered after the revolution. The Russian people, instead of, as stated in the manifesto of Nicholas II, "to repel, having risen as one person, the daring onslaught of the enemy", forgetting all internal strife, on the contrary, they drowned in polyphonic disputes about the structure of the state, betraying the Fatherland, without which, by definition, maybe no state.

The results of the First World War laid the balance of power of the twentieth century - the century of the Anglo-Saxons, which Germany wanted to break, stung by the results of the Versailles Conference. After all, when the text of the Versailles Peace Treaty was made public, it was a shock for the Germans. But instead of thinking about their sins and errors, ups and downs, they gave birth to the Hitlerite doctrine of the natural heterogeneity of people and nations, the rationale for unbridled expansion, which finally discredited the German historical impulse in the eyes of the world to the great satisfaction of Britain and the United States. The Anglo-Saxons forever "ordered" the Germans the idea of ​​the unity of all German lands, which is now a nightmare for the politically correct historical consciousness.

In the age of universal values ​​and computerization, when the microchip replaced Shakespeare, Goethe and Dostoevsky, the factor of strength, the ability to influence, as we see, remains the basis of strategic control over territories, resource-rich regions and sea approaches to them. This is evidenced by the politics of the great powers in the beginning of the 21st century, although these powers prefer to think of themselves as "great democracies". However, in international relations there is much less democracy than successive geopolitical constants.
In the 1990s, Russia temporarily renounced the sense of its geopolitical mission, discarded all the traditional foundations of its foreign policy. And while its political elite reveled in the "new thinking", the whole world willingly took advantage of the old one.

The lines of force that are now pushing Russia to the northeast of Eurasia are surprisingly similar to those that appeared before the First World War. This is the throwing of Russia into the tundra, away from the Baltic, from the Black Sea, this is the rejection of the Caucasus, this is an Eastern question that by no means remained in the 19th century.

It was these traditional configurations that were the main content of international contradictions throughout the 20th century, despite the external side - the rivalry between communism and liberalism. The strategic points of the planet have been the subject of the most dramatic clashes on both the diplomatic and military levels. There is nothing new in this world. But only those who know history well are able to adequately meet the challenges of the future.

Notes:
Churchill W. The World Crisis. 1916-1918. - N.Y., 1927. - Vо1. 1. - R.227-229 /