Translation transformations are the essence of the translation process. Translation transformations

Transformations, with the help of which it is possible to carry out the transition from original units to translation units in the indicated sense, are called translation (interlingual) transformations. Since translation transformations are carried out with linguistic units that have both a content plan and an expression plan, they are of a formal semantic nature, transforming both the form and the meaning of the original units.

As part of the description of the translation process, translation transformations are considered not statically as a means of analyzing the relationship between foreign language units and their dictionary correspondences, but dynamically - as translation methods that a translator can use when translating various originals in cases where there is no dictionary correspondence or cannot be used due to context. Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexico-grammatical transformations, where transformations either affect both the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e., they carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical units and vice versa.

The main types of lexical transformations used in the process of translation involving various FL and TL include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexico-semantic substitutions (concretization, generalization, modulation). The most common grammatical transformations include: syntactic assimilation (literal translation), division of a sentence, union of sentences, grammatical substitutions (forms of a word, part of speech or member of a sentence). Complex lexico-grammatical transformations include antonymic translation, explication (descriptive translation) and compensation. Let's take a closer look at these transformations.

Transcription and transliteration are ways of translating the lexical unit of the original by recreating its form using the letters PY. During transcription, the sound form of a foreign word is reproduced, and during transliteration, its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription with the preservation of some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages differ significantly from each other, the transfer of the form of the word FL in the target language is always somewhat arbitrary and approximate. Vilen Naumovich gives examples of the English-Russian translation that we will use in this section: "absurdist" - "absurdist" (author of a work of absurdity), "kleptocracy" - "kleptocracy" (thieves' elite), "skateboarding" - "skateboarding" ( skateboarding).

For each pair of languages, rules for the transmission of the sound composition of the word FL are developed, cases of preserving transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the rules currently accepted are indicated. In English-Russian translations, the most common transliteration elements in transcription are mainly the transliteration of some unpronounceable consonants and reduced vowels ("Dorset" ["dasit] - "Dorset", "Campbell" ["kaerabalj - "Campbell"), the transfer of double consonants between vowels and at the end of words after vowels ("Bonners Ferry" - "Bonners Ferry", "boss" - "boss"). In addition, in preserving some of the spelling features of the word, which make it possible to bring the sound of the word in translation closer to already known samples ("Hercules missile" - "Hercules missile", "deescalation" - "de-escalation", "Columbia" - "Colombia"). Traditional exceptions concern, mainly, the consecrated custom of translations of names of historical figures and some geographical names ("Charles I" - "Charles I", "William III" - "William III", "Edinborough" - "Edinburgh").

Tracing is a way of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of stable phrases) with their lexical counterparts in the TL. The essence of tracing is the creation of a new word or stable combination in the TL, copying the structure of the original lexical unit. This is exactly what the translator does when translating "superpower" as "superpower", "mass culture" as "mass culture", "green revolution" as "green revolution". In some cases, the use of the tracing technique is accompanied by a change in the order of the tracing elements: "firststrike weapon" - "first strike weapon", "landbased missile" - "ground-based missile", "Rapid Deployment Force" - "rapid deployment force". Often, in the translation process, transcription and tracing are used simultaneously: "transnational" - "transnational", "petrodollar" - "petrodollar", "miniskirt" - "miniskirt".

Concretization, generalization and modulation are united by a common name: lexico-semantic substitutions.

Lexico-semantic substitutions is a way of translating original lexical units by using TL units in the translation, the meaning of which does not coincide with the values of the original units, but can be derived from them using a certain type of logical transformations. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and modulation (semantic development) of the meaning of the original unit.

Concretization is the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a broader subject-logical meaning by a word and a phrase TL with a narrower meaning. As a result of applying this transformation, the created correspondence and the original lexical unit find themselves in logical inclusion relations: the FL unit expresses the generic concept, and the TL unit expresses the species concept included in it:

"Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant". "Dinny was waiting in a corridor that smelled of carbolic acid." "Not was at the ceremony". - "He attended the ceremony."

In some cases, the use of concretization is due to the fact that the TL does not have a word with such a broad meaning. So, the English noun "thing" has a very abstract meaning ("an entity of any kind") and is always translated into Russian by concretization: "thing, object, case, fact, case, being", etc.

Sometimes the generic name in the target language cannot be used due to the divergence of the connotative components of the meaning. Thus, the English "meal" is widely used in various styles of speech, and the Russian "meal" is not commonly used outside of the special vocabulary. Therefore, as a rule, when translating "meal" is replaced by a more specific "breakfast, lunch, dinner", etc.:

"At seven o"clock an excellent meal was served in the dining-room".

"At seven o'clock an excellent dinner was served in the dining room."

It is clear that the choice of a more specific name is entirely determined by the context and in other conditions at seven o'clock (in the evening) dinner could also be served.

Concretization is often used when there is a word in the TL with an equally broad meaning and corresponding connotation, since such words may have varying degrees of usage in FL and TL.

It has already been noted above that words with a broad meaning are used in the English language. When translating such words, concretization is a very common way of translation. In Charles Dickens' novel "David Copperfield", the behavior of the hero's mother, frightened by the sudden appearance of the formidable Miss Betsy, is described as follows:

"My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner".

English verbs with the same meaning "to leave" and "to go" cannot be translated here using the corresponding Russian verbs "leave" and "go". The unacceptability of the translation "Mother left her chair and went behind him into the corner" is beyond doubt, the Russian language does not describe such a specific emotional situation in this way. The best way to ensure the equivalence of the Russian translation is to specify the indicated verbs:

"The excited mother jumped up from her chair and huddled in a corner behind him."

Another sentence from the same novel should be translated in a similar way:

"My old dear bedroom was changed, and I was to lie a long way off" .

Arriving home after a long absence, the boy sees that everything in the house has changed and has become alien to him. The use of direct correspondences would make the translation of this English sentence obscure. Why should someone "lay away from the bedroom"? The context shows that "lying" here means "sleeping", and "away" indicates just another part of the house. This is how it should be said in Russian:

"My sweet old bedroom was gone, and I had to sleep at the other end of the house."

The concretization of the English verbs "speaking" "to say" and "to tell" is widespread, which can be translated into Russian not only as "speak" or "say", but also as more specific "say, repeat, notice, assert, report, ask, object, command ", etc.:

"So what? I said".

"So what?" I asked.

"Not told me I should always obey my father".

"He advised me to always obey my father."

"The boss told me to come at once".

"The owner told me to come right away."

Generalization is the replacement of an IL unit, which has a narrower meaning, with a TL unit with a broader meaning, i.e. transformation inverse of instantiation. The created correspondence expresses a generic concept, including the original specific one:

"Doesn't visit me practically every week-end."

"He visits me almost every week."

The use of a word with a more general meaning relieves the translator of the need to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when he speaks of "weekend".

Sometimes the specific name of an item does not tell the Translation Receptor anything or is irrelevant in the given context:

"Jane used to drive to market with her mother in their La Salle convertible".

"Jane went with her mother to the market in their car."

"Didn't show us his old beat-up Navajo blanket".

"He showed us his tattered Indian blanket."

A more general designation may also be preferred for stylistic reasons. In works of fiction in Russian, it is not customary to indicate the height and weight of characters with punctual accuracy, if this is not related to sports considerations, and the combination a "young man of 6 feet 2 inches" in the English original will be replaced in Russian translation by "a young man of high growth."

Sometimes the translator has the opportunity to choose between a more specific and a more general version of the translation and prefers the latter:

"Then this girl gets killed, because she's always speeding". - "And then this girl dies, because she always breaks the rules."

"Who won the game? I said. It"s only the half. - Who won? - I ask. - It's not over yet." (Compare "more sporty": "It's only the first half").

The method of generalization can also create regular correspondences to units of the foreign language: "foot" - "leg", "wrist watch" - "wrist watch", etc.

Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a TL unit, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. Most often, the meanings of the related words in the original and the translation turn out to be connected by causal relationships: "I don" t blame them ". -" I understand them ". (The reason is replaced by the effect: I do not blame them because I understand them) "He's dead now". - "He died". (He's dead, so he's dead now.) "Not always made you say everything twice." "He always asked again." (You were forced to repeat what was said because he asked you to repeat it).

When using the modulation method, the cause-and-effect relationship is often broader, but the logical connection between the two names is always preserved:

"Manson slung his bag up and climbed into the battered gig behind a tall, angular black horse".

"Manson put down his suitcase and climbed into a rickety gig pulled by a large, bony black horse."

A contextual substitution is clearly needed here, especially when translating the combination "behind a horse", since in Russian one cannot say: "He got into the cart behind the horse." The translation of "slung his bag up" through "put his suitcase", "behind a horse" through "drawn by a horse" and "angular" through "bony" is done with the help of modulation. Although, in fact, it is quite difficult to determine exactly what is the relationship between the corresponding concepts in the original and translation.

In the following example, this connection is more explicit, but here again it is rather not "because", but "because, insofar":

"Wouldn't cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again and draw skeletons all over his slate, before his eyes were dry."

"He again cheered up, began to laugh and drew various figures on his slate board, although his eyes were still full of tears."

Syntactic assimilation (literal translation) is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of the original is transformed into a similar structure of the TL. This type of "zero" transformation is used in cases where there are parallel syntactic structures in FL and TL. Syntactic assimilation can lead to a complete correspondence between the number of language units and the order of their location in the original and in the translation: "I always remember his words". "I always remember his words." As a rule, however, the use of syntactic similitude is accompanied by some changes in structural components. When translating from English into Russian, for example, articles, linking verbs, and other service elements may be omitted, as well as changes in morphological forms and some lexical units:

"One of the greatest events in the period following World War I and the Russian Revolution, and closely connected with them both was the growth of the world Communist movement".

"One of the most important events of the period following the First World War and the socialist revolution in Russia, an event closely connected with the war and the revolution, was the growth of the communist movement throughout the world."

When translating this sentence, articles are omitted, some prepositions are omitted or added, morphological forms of words are changed, some words are used that do not have a direct correspondence in the English text. The translator repeated the word "event", added the word "socialist", replaced the phrase "with both of them" with the more euphonious "with war and revolution". All these changes do not affect the main structure of the sentence, which is transmitted using a similar Russian structure, keeping the same set of sentence members and the sequence of their location in the text. Syntactic similitude is widely used in English-Russian translations. A change in the structure of a sentence during translation is usually explained by the impossibility of ensuring the equivalence of a translation by means of a literal translation.

Sentence segmentation is a method of translation in which the syntactic structure of a sentence in the original is transformed into two or more predicative TL structures. Articulation transformation leads either to the transformation of a simple sentence of FL into a complex sentence of TL, or to the transformation of a simple or complex sentence of FL into two or more independent sentences in TL:

"The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers".

"The annual reviews of the Labor government were not discussed among the workers at any stage. They were discussed only with employers."

"Both engine crews leaped to safety from a collision between a parcels train and a freight train near Morris Cowley, Oxfordshire".

In the first example, the separation of the last part of the English utterance into a separate sentence in the translation allows us to clearly express the opposition in the original. In the second example, the division transformation made it possible to convey the meaning of the difficult-to-translate English combination "leaped to safety" and provide a more natural sequence of events for the Russian language (first there was a collision, and then the members of the brigade managed to escape).

"A claim for a substantial wage increase and improved conditions for about 70,000 municipal busmen in the provinces was yesterday referred to a joint wages committee of the unions and employers which will meet on January 12".

"About 70,000 bus drivers run by provincial municipalities have demanded significant pay increases and improved working conditions.

Yesterday, this demand was submitted to the joint commission on wages, in which both trade unions and employers are represented. The commission will consider this demand at its meeting on January 12th.

We already know that English newspaper information messages are characterized by the desire to fit as much information as possible into the framework of one sentence by complicating its structure. The style of the Russian press is more characterized by the desire for a relative brevity of sentences containing informational materials.

Sentence aggregation is a translation method in which the syntactic structure in the original is transformed by combining two simple sentences into one complex one. This transformation is the reverse of the previous one:

"That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago."

"It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed."

"The only thing that worried me was our front door. It creaks like a bastard."

"One thing bothered me - our front door creaks like a frenzy."

Often, the use of union transformation is associated with the redistribution of predicative syntagmas between adjacent sentences, i.e. there is a simultaneous use of union and division - one sentence is divided into two parts, and one of its parts is combined with another sentence:

"But occasionally an indiscretion takes place, such as that of Mr. Woodrow Wyatt, Labor MP, when Financial Secretary to the War Office. He boasted of the prowess of British spies in obtaining information regarding the armed forces of the USSR".

"However, at times immodesty is allowed. For example, the Labor MP, Woodrow Wyatt, when he was the financial secretary of the War Department, boasted of the dexterity shown by British spies in obtaining information about the armed forces of the USSR."

Grammar substitutions are a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is converted into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language of any level can be replaced: a word form, a part of speech, a sentence member, a sentence of a certain type. It is clear that when translating, the forms of the FL are always replaced by the forms of the TL. Grammar substitution as a special way of translation implies not only the use of TL forms in translation, but the rejection of the use of TL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in expressed content (grammatical meaning). So, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, the correlated nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian ( "money" - "money", "ink" - "ink", etc.), or, conversely, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular ("struggles" - "struggle", "outskirts" - "outskirts", etc.). P.). But under certain conditions, the replacement of the form of a number in the translation process can be used as a means of creating an occasional correspondence:

"We are searching for talent everywhere".

"We're looking for talent everywhere."

"The invaders resorted to violence and atrocity to crush the resistance of the native population".

"The invaders resorted to violence and atrocities to crush the resistance of the indigenous population."

"They left the room with their heads held high".

"They left the room with their heads held high." A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is the replacement of a part of speech. For English-Russian translations, the most typical are the replacements of a noun by a verb and an adjective by a noun. In English, the names of figures are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names "writer, artist, singer, dancer", etc.), but also to characterize the actions of "non-professionals". The meanings of such nouns are regularly translated using Russian verbs:

"Not is a poor swimmer". "He's not a good swimmer." "She is no good as a letter-writer". "She can't write letters." "I am a very rapid packer". - "I fit very quickly."

As can be seen from the examples, the replacement of a noun by a verb is often accompanied by the replacement of an adjective with this noun by the Russian dialect. The verb is often replaced by verbal nouns of a different type:

"It is our hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday". - "We hope that by Friday an agreement will be reached."

English adjectives replaced by Russian nouns are most often formed from geographical names:

"Australian prosperity was followed by a slump". Australia's economic prosperity was followed by a crisis.

Wed also "the British Government" - "the British government", "the American decision" - "the decision of the United States", "the Congolese Embassy" - "embassy of the Congo", etc. increase or decrease in volume, size or extent:

"The stoppage which is in support of higher pay and shorter working hours, began on Monday".

"Strike in support of demands for higher wages and shorter working hours began on Monday".

The replacement of members of a sentence leads to a restructuring of its syntactic structure. This kind of restructuring also occurs in a number of cases when a part of speech is replaced. For example, in the examples above, the replacement of the noun by the verb was accompanied by the replacement of the definition by the circumstance. A more significant restructuring of the syntactic structure is associated with the replacement of the main members of the sentence, especially the subject. In English-Russian translations, the use of such substitutions is largely due to the fact that in English, more often than in Russian, the subject performs functions other than designations of the subject of the action, for example:

the object of the action (the subject is replaced by the object):

"Visitors are requested to leave their coats in the cloak-room". - "Visitors are asked to leave outerwear in the cloakroom."

designations of time (the subject is replaced by the adverb of time):

"The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity". - "Last week there was an increase in diplomatic activity."

designations of space (the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the place):

"The little town of Clay Cross today witnessed a massive demonstration". - "There was a massive demonstration in the small town of Clay Cross today."

Designations of the reason (the subject is replaced by the circumstance of the reason):

"The crash killed 20 people". "Crash kills 20 people".

Changing the type of a sentence results in a syntactic rearrangement similar to transformations when using an articulation or union transformation. In the process of translation, a complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one ("It was so dark that I could not see her." - "I could not see her in such darkness"); the main clause can be replaced by a subordinate clause and vice versa ("While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in." - "I ate fried eggs when these two nuns came in with suitcases."); a complex sentence can be replaced by a compound one and vice versa ("I didn't sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o" clock when I woke up. I felt pretty hungry as soon as I had a cigarette. "-" I slept not for long, it was ten hours when I woke up. I smoked a cigarette and immediately felt how hungry I was "); a complex sentence with an allied connection can be replaced by a sentence with an allied connection and vice versa ("It was as hot as hell and the windows were all steamy". - "The heat was hellish, all the windows were fogged up" -. "Had the decision was taken in time , this would never have happened". - "If the decision had been made in a timely manner, this would never have happened").

Antonymic translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which the replacement of an affirmative form in the original with a negative form in translation or, conversely, a negative one with an affirmative one, is accompanied by the replacement of a FL lexical unit with a TL unit with the opposite meaning:

"Nothing changed in my hometown".

"Everything stays the same in my hometown".

In English-Russian translations, this transformation is used especially often when in the original the negative form is used with a word that has a negative prefix:

"She is not unworthy of your attention".

"She well deserves your attention."

This includes the use of the negative form with the negative conjunctions "until" and "unless":

"The United States did not enter the war until April 1917".

"The United States only entered the war in April 1917."

"Additional expenditures shall not be made unless authorized".

"Additional expenses should be made only with special permission."

Within the framework of antonymic translation, the unit of FL can be replaced not only by the directly opposite unit of TL, but also by other words and combinations expressing the opposite idea:

"The railroad unions excluded negroes from their membership".

"Railway unions did not accept blacks into their ranks".

It should be borne in mind that negation can also be expressed by other means, for example, using the union "without":

"Never came home without bringing something for the kids."

"Coming home, he always brought something to the children."

The use of antonymic translation is often combined with the use of other transformations (lexical or grammatical):

"Their house had no screen doors".

"Their doors were solid."

The replacement of the negative form by the affirmative one is accompanied by the modulation of the meaning of the combination "screen doors".)

"The people are not slow in learning the truth".

"People will quickly learn the truth".

Antonymic translation is accompanied by the replacement of a part of speech - an adjective with an adverb.)

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation, in which the lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explicates its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in TL. With the help of explication, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: "conservationist" - "supporter of environmental protection", "whistle-stop speech" - "the candidate's speeches during the election campaign trip". The disadvantage of descriptive translation is its cumbersomeness and verbosity. Therefore, this method of translation is most successfully used in cases where a relatively brief explanation can be dispensed with:

"Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident".

"Car owners from the cities lying between these two points, continuously brought and took away parents who visited their children injured during the crash" .

Compensation is a method of translation in which the elements of meaning lost during the translation of the FL unit in the original are transmitted in the translation text by some other means, and not necessarily in the same place in the text as in the original. Thus, the lost meaning is replenished ("compensated"), and, in general, the content of the original is reproduced with greater completeness. At the same time, grammatical means of the original are often replaced by lexical ones and vice versa. The heroine of W. Thackeray's novel "Vanity Fair" describes the ignorance of her master, Sir Pitt Crawley as follows:

"Serve him right, said Sir Pitt; him and his family has been cheating me on that farm these hundred and fifty years ... Sir Pitt might have said, he and Ms family to be sure; but rich baronets do not need to be careful about grammar as poor governesses must be" .

The incorrect use of the form of the pronoun of the third person in the original plays an important communicative role and must be somehow reflected in the translation. But an attempt to reproduce such an irregularity in the Russian language is clearly impossible. At the same time, the lost element of meaning can be successfully compensated if Sir Pitt's non-literary speech is reproduced using other (lexical) means of the Russian language:

"He and his family swindled me on this farm for a hundred and fifty years! ... Sir Pitt could, of course, have expressed himself more delicately, but rich baronets do not have to be especially shy in expressions, not like us poor governesses."

Especially often, compensation has to be resorted to to compensate for the lost stylistic and figurative aspects of the original content:

"All sorts of pro-naphthalene connoisseurs of Russia, who had excelled in slandering the Soviet Union even before the Second World War, were again taken out of the diplomatic chests."

The loss of the English image of "cold storage" is compensated in translation by the metaphorical "diplomatic chest" and the ironic "mothballed experts".

I.S. Alekseeva in her work "Introduction to Translation Studies" understands transformations as interlingual transformations that require restructuring at the lexical, grammatical and textual levels. In the process of translation, there are transformations of 4 elementary types:

1) permutations;

2) replacements;

3) additions;

4) omissions.

Let's consider the main types of translation transformations. All of them can be linguistic (objective) and speech (contextual).

1. Permutation. This is a change in the translation of the location (order) of the language elements corresponding to the language elements of the original. Words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence, elementary sentences within a complex one, independent sentences in the whole text system can be subjected to permutations. The most frequent permutations of the members of the sentence - a change in the order of words.

I "ll 1 come 2 late 3 today 4. - Today 4 I 1 will come 2 late 3.

The rearrangement in the subordinate clause is associated with objective differences in the patterns of word order in Russian and English.

2. Replacement. This is the most common type of translation transformations.

1) Substitutions of word forms often depend on differences in the grammatical structure of languages. Such substitutions are objective: beans (singular) - beans (plural). Case substitutions - with a difference in management.

2) Substitutions of parts of speech: popular protest - protest of the population (adj. + noun - noun + noun); Latin American peoples - the people of Latin America (adj. + adj. + n. - n. + adj. + n.).

Phrases of this kind, although they are decomposable, gradually acquire a clichéd character in speech; then the choice becomes redundant, and the substitution transformation approaches a one-to-one equivalent.

3) Substitutions of sentence members - are necessary when the syntactic structure is restructured: the replacement of sentence members, the replacement of the English passive with the active voice when translating into Russian.

4) Syntactic substitutions in a complex sentence:

Replacing a complex sentence with a simple one; replacing a simple sentence with a complex one; replacing a compound sentence with a complex one; replacement of an allied connection in a complex Russian sentence with an allied one in English.

5) Lexical substitutions. Among the cases of lexical substitutions, the most common are, perhaps, four: partial change in the seme composition of the original lexeme, redistribution of the seme composition of the original lexeme, concretization and generalization.

Partial change in the seed composition of the original system. The use of this kind of lexical substitution is due to the context, both wide, including situational, and narrow - compatibility within the literary norm of the TL.

Redistribution of the seme composition of the original lexeme. Such a redistribution is necessary if the original lexeme contains semes that cannot be conveyed by one TL lexeme, and also if there is a danger of violating the rules of compatibility.

Concretization is usually called the replacement of a word or phrase in the FL with a broader referential meaning by a word or phrase in the TL with a narrower referential meaning. Specification can be linguistic and contextual.

Generalization is a replacement, the opposite of concretization, when a word appears in the translation with a wider referential meaning than the word FL.

3. Additions. They represent an extension of the original text, associated with the need for the completeness of the transfer of its content, as well as differences in the grammatical structure.

4. Omissions. Often they are the inverse of additions when it comes to objective differences between languages. Contextual omissions may be related to the type of translation (in consecutive and simultaneous interpretation they are associated with test compression and do not affect only invariant correspondences).

5. Antonymic translation. It is used when a direct route is impossible or undesirable. This is a complex lexical and grammatical substitution, which consists in the transformation of an affirmative construction into a negative one.

6. Compensation. Refers to the types of transformation. There are positional and multi-level (or qualitative) compensation.

7. Descriptive translation. It is a lexical replacement with generalization, accompanied by lexical additions and built on the concept definition principle.

As part of the description of the translation process, translation transformations are considered not statically as a means of analyzing the relationship between foreign language units and their dictionary correspondences, but dynamically as translation methods that a translator can use when translating various originals in cases where there is no or no dictionary correspondence. can be used according to the context. Depending on the nature of the foreign language units, which are considered as initial in the transformation operation, translation transformations are divided into lexical and grammatical. In addition, there are also complex lexico-grammatical transformations, where transformations either affect simultaneously the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e. carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones and vice versa.

Transcription and transliteration are ways of translating the lexical unit of the original by recreating its form using the letters PY. During transcription, the sound form of a foreign word is reproduced, and during transliteration, its graphic form (letter composition). The leading method in modern translation practice is transcription with the preservation of some elements of transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the form of the word FL in the target language is always somewhat arbitrary and approximate: absurdist - an absurdist (author of a work of absurdity), kleptocracy - kleptocracy (thieves' elite), skateboarding - skateboarding (skating on a skateboard ). For each pair of languages, rules for the transmission of the sound composition of the word FL are developed, cases of preserving transliteration elements and traditional exceptions to the rules currently accepted are indicated.

Tracing is a way of translating a lexical unit of the original by replacing its constituent parts - morphemes or words (in the case of stable phrases) with their lexical counterparts in the TL. The essence of tracing is the creation of a new word or stable combination in the TL, copying the structure of the original lexical unit. This is exactly what the translator does when translating superpower as "superpower", mass culture as "mass culture", green revolution as "green revolution". In some cases, the use of the tracing technique is accompanied by a change in the order of the tracing elements: first-strike weapon - first strike weapon, land-based missile - ground-based missile, Rapid Deployment Force - rapid deployment forces.

Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant. Dinny was waiting in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. Was not at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony.

In some cases, the use of concretization is due to the fact that the TL does not have a word with such a broad meaning. So, the English noun thing has a very abstract meaning (an entity of any kind) and is always translated into Russian by concretization: "thing, object, case, fact, case, being", etc.

Concretization is often used when there is a word in the TL with an equally broad meaning and corresponding connotation, since such words may have varying degrees of usage in FL and TL. When translating such words, concretization is a very common way of translation. In Charles Dickens' novel "David Copperfield", the behavior of the hero's mother, frightened by the sudden appearance of the formidable Miss Betsy, is described as follows:

My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner. The excited mother jumped up from her chair and huddled in the corner behind him.

Doesn't visits me practically every weekend. He visits me almost every week.

The use of a word with a more general meaning relieves the translator of the need to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when he speaks of "weekend".

Sometimes the specific name of an item does not tell the Translation Receptor anything or is irrelevant in the given context:

Jane used to drive to market with her mother in their La Salle convertible.

Jane went with her mother to the market in their car.

The method of generalization can also be used to create regular correspondences to units of the foreign language: foot - leg, wrist watch - wristwatch, etc.

Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase FL with a TL unit, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. Most often, the meanings of the correlated words in the original and the translation turn out to be connected by causal relationships: I don "t blame them. - I understand them. (The reason is replaced by the effect: I don't blame them because I understand them). He" s dead now. - He died. (He died, so he is now dead.) When using the modulation method, the cause-and-effect relationship is often broader, but the logical connection between the two names is always preserved:

Manson slung his bag up and climbed into the battered gig behind a tall, angular black horse. (A. Cronin)

Manson set down his suitcase and climbed into a rickety buggy drawn by a large, bony black horse.

The annual surveys of the Labor Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only with the employers.

The annual reviews of the Labor government were not discussed among the workers at any stage. They were discussed only with entrepreneurs.

That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago.

It was a long time ago - it seemed like fifty years had passed.

Grammar substitutions are a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is converted into a TL unit with a different grammatical meaning. A grammatical unit of a foreign language of any level can be replaced: a word form, a part of speech, a sentence member, a sentence of a certain type. It is clear that when translating, the forms of the FL are always replaced by the forms of the TL. Grammar substitution as a special way of translation implies not only the use of TL forms in translation, but the rejection of the use of TL forms similar to the original ones, the replacement of such forms with others that differ from them in expressed content (grammatical meaning). So, in English and Russian there are singular and plural forms, and, as a rule, the correlated nouns in the original and in the translation are used in the same number, except for cases when the singular form in English corresponds to the plural form in Russian ( money - money, ink - ink, etc.) or vice versa, the English plural corresponds to the Russian singular (struggles - struggle, outskirts - outskirts, etc.).

A very common type of grammatical replacement in the translation process is the replacement of a part of speech. For English-Russian translations, the most typical are the replacements of a noun by a verb and an adjective by a noun. In English, the names of figures (usually with the suffix - er) are widely used not only to designate persons of a certain profession (cf. Russian names "writer, artist, singer, dancer", etc.), but also to characterize the actions of "non-professionals". The meanings of such nouns are regularly translated using Russian verbs:

Not is a poor swimmer. - He doesn't swim well. She is no good as a letter writer. She can't write letters.

Nothing changed in my hometown.

Everything remained the same in my hometown.

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation, in which the lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explicates its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in TL. With the help of explication, one can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: conservationist - a supporter of environmental protection, whistle-stop speech - speeches of a candidate during an election campaign trip. Therefore, this method of translation is most successfully used in cases where a relatively brief explanation can be dispensed with:

Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident.

Car owners from cities between these two points were constantly bringing and dropping parents who were visiting their children who were injured during the crash.

"Serve him right," said Sir Pitt; "him and his family has been cheating me on that farm these hundred and fifty years". Sir Pitt might have said, "he and Ms family to be sure; but rich baronets do not need to be careful about grammar as poor governesses must be.

"He and his family swindled me on this farm for a hundred and fifty years!" Sir Pitt could, of course, have expressed himself more delicately, but rich baronets do not have to be especially shy in expressions, not like us poor governesses.

In all cases, some means is searched for in the target language that conveys the lost element of the original content.

We formulate the main conclusions on the theoretical part of the course work:

During the translation process, certain relationships are established between two texts in different languages (the original text and the translated text). Comparing such texts, one can reveal the internal mechanism of translation, identify equivalent units, and also detect changes in form and content that occur when the original unit is replaced by an equivalent unit of the translated text.

Translation units are the minimum units to be translated, or translation equivalence units, i.e. FL units that have an equivalent in the TL text.

The basis of a translation unit can be not only a word, but any language unit: from a phoneme to a superphrasal unity. The main condition for the correctness of determining the source unit to be translated is the identification of the text function of a particular source unit.

Classification of translation transformations.

There are many ways to classify
translation transformations. Let's dwell on some of them. V.N.
Komissarov classifies translation transformations into lexical and grammatical transformations. The main types of lexical transformations include the following translation techniques: translation transcription and transliteration (Kleptocracy-kleptocracy - thieves' elite; boss-boss).

V.N. Komissarov also highlights lexico-semantic substitutions. The main types of such substitutions are concretization, generalization and semantic development of the meaning of the original unit.

The most common grammatical transformations include: segmentation of a sentence, combination of sentences, grammatical substitutions (word forms, parts of speech or members of a sentence). (We got under way with a mere breath of wind, and for many days stood along the eastern cost of Java, without any other incident to beguile the monotony of our course than the occasional meeting with some of the small grabs of the Archipelago to which we were bound.—We left the port in a slight breeze, and for long days sailed along the east coast of Java, the monotony of our navigation being only occasionally interrupted by encounters with small coasters from the islands to which we were bound.(This is an example of division of a sentence). (That was a long time ago. It seemed like fifty years ago. - It was a long time ago - it seemed that fifty years had passed). This is an example of combining sentences.

Grammar substitutions is a translation method in which a grammatical unit in the original is converted into a translation unit with a different grammatical meaning. (He left the room with his heads held high. -He left the room with his head held high. It is our hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday. -We hope that an agreement will be reached by Friday).

V.N. Komissarov also identifies the third type of translation transformations - this is a mixed type, or as he calls "complex lexico-grammatical transformations". We refer to them: antonymic translation, explication and compensation.

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation, in which the lexical unit of the original language is replaced by a phrase that expresses its meaning, that is, giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in the target language. With the help of explications, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original: "Conservationist" - a supporter of environmental protection.

Barkhudarov distinguishes the following types of transformations:

permutations;

Additions;

Omissions.

These four types of elementary translation transformations are rare in practice "in their pure form" - usually they are combined with each other, taking on a character; complex, complex transformations.

Permutation as a kind of translational transformation, according to L.S. Barkhudarov, is a change in the location of language elements in the translation text compared to the original text. The elements that can be rearranged are words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence and independent sentences in the structure of the text. It is known that the word "order" in English and Russian is not the same. For instance:

/A suburban train / was derailed / near London/ last night/.

1 subject 2 predicate 3 adverb of place 4 adverb of time

The order of the components of the Russian sentence is "directly opposite" to the order of the components of the original English sentence.

Last night / near London / derailed / commuter train.

This phenomenon is quite common in translation. In the English text, the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, while in the Russian translation, on the contrary, the main clause precedes the subordinate clause.

The silver saucer clattered when he replaced the pitcher. - He quickly put down the jug, even the silver stand jingled.

The second type of translation transformations that Barkhudarov singles out is replacements. This is the most common and diverse type of translation transformations. In the process of translation, word forms, parts of speech, sentence members can be replaced. That is, there are grammatical and lexical substitutions. The replacement of parts of speech is the most common example of translation transformations. (At first he hung in my grandfather's room, but soon he_ outlawed it to our attic, because in began to imitate him). There is also the replacement of a verbal noun with a personal verb, the replacement of an adjective with an adverb, and so on. When the members of a sentence are replaced, words and groups of words in the translation text are used in syntactic functions other than their counterparts in the original text, in other words, the syntactic scheme of the sentence is restructured.

L. S. Barkhudarov also highlights lexical substitutions (concretization, generalization). Specification is the replacement of a word or phrase in the original language with a broader preferential meaning by a word or phrase in the target language with a narrower meaning. Generalization- a phenomenon opposite to concretization - the replacement of a unit of the original language, which has a narrower meaning, with a unit of the target language with a broader meaning. Here are some examples of generalization.

There are also complex lexico-grammatical substitutions.
Antonymic translation, whose essence lies in the transformation
an affirmative construction into a negative one or vice versa, a negative one into an affirmative one, accompanied by the replacement of one of the words of the translated sentence in the original language with its antonym in the target language. (I’t not kidding. - I’m seriously telling you. She wasn "t looking too happy. - She looked rather unhappy).

The next type of translation transformations is addition. The reason for the need for additions in the translated text is what can be called the "formal lack of expression" of the semantic components of the phrase in the original language. (So what? -I said. Cold as hell. -Well, so what? - I ask in an icy voice).

The next type of translation transformations that L. S. Barkhudarov singles out is omission. This is the exact opposite of adding. When translating, words that are most often semantically redundant, that is, expressing meanings that can be extracted from the text without their help, are most often omitted. (So I paid my check and all. I left the bar and went out where the telephones were. -I paid and went to the machines).

ME AND. Retzker divides translation transformations into lexical and grammatical transformations. ME AND. Retzker identifies seven varieties lexical transformations:

1. differentiation of meanings;

2. concretization of values;

3. generalization of values;

4. semantic development;

5. antonymic translation;

6. holistic transformation;

7. compensation for losses in the translation process.

grammatical transformations, according to Ya.I. Retsker, consist in the transformation of the sentence structure in the process of translation in accordance with the norms of the target language. The transformation can be complete or partial. Usually, when the main members of the sentence are replaced, a complete transformation occurs, but if only minor members of the sentence are replaced, a partial transformation occurs. In addition to substitutions of members of a sentence, parts of speech can also be replaced. Here are some examples of grammatical transformations

Long habit has made it more comfortable for me to speak through the creatures of my invention. - Due to a long-term habit, it is more convenient for me to express myself through people I have made up.

Adjectives in translation are most often replaced by adverbs. This grammatical transformation is usually associated with the phenomenon of epithet hyphenation common in English fiction: Not stretched a careless hand. He casually held out his hand. Was not given money. or She was offered another post- She was offered a new position. This kind of transformation ("passive" - "active") are very common.

These are the features of the classification of translation transformations proposed by Ya. I. Retsker.

Grammar transformations:

1. addition;

2. omission;

3. replacement;

4. permutation;

5. division and association of proposals.

In the process of translation activity, transformations are most often of a mixed type, that is, they are of a complex, complex nature.

As you already know, under translation, according to the definition L.S. Barkhudarov is understood as "the process of converting a speech work or text in one language into a speech work or text in another language while maintaining an unchanged content (meaning) plan" . However, one can speak of “preserving an unchanged content plan” only in a relative sense, since losses are inevitable during interlingual transformation. Therefore, one can agree with the point of view Breusa E.V. that translation is a certain kind of interlingual transformation or transformation of text in one language into text in another language.

When translating texts, there are a number of difficulties of both linguistic and extralinguistic nature, without overcoming which it is impossible to achieve adequate translation. Achieving an adequate translation requires the translator's ability to use regular correspondences, as well as to overcome inconsistencies between the source language and the target language (in this case, between English and Russian), which may arise due to structural and semantic differences between these languages. These differences are due to the following factors:

1. Russian language is considered synthetic, since it is distinguished by its developed system of endings (inflection) of various parts of speech during inflection (for example, case endings when declensing nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or endings when conjugating verbs). In English, which is considered analytical, inflection is poorly developed - it is replaced by words of a service nature, such as articles and prepositions.

2. There are numerous cases when the Russian language does not have an equivalent grammatical form that exists in English (for example, articles).

3. Often, equivalent forms and constructions are available in both languages, but their semantics, use or compatibility with other units of the translated text do not match.

4. There are a number of syntactic and morphological differences between English and Russian.

Nevertheless, these opposites are of a formal nature, since they concern the expression of the same content. The commonality between the grammatical properties of the above-mentioned languages is given by their common belonging to the Indo-European family and is manifested in the presence of common grammatical meanings, categories and functions. An example is the category of number for nouns, the category of degrees of comparison for adjectives, the category of time for a verb, the functional significance of word order in a sentence, etc.

Note that the differences in the grammatical structure of the English and Russian languages, from the point of view of translation, are expressed as follows:

1) translation problems in terms of the similarity of the grammatical properties of language units;

2) translation problems in terms of differences in the grammatical properties of language units;

3) translation problems in the absence of some grammatical categories in IA and PY. These are, for example, the gerund, the fixed word order in English, and categories such as case forms and agreement in Russian.

But all these problems are solved with the help of special transformations. These transformations are called translation transformations , which are necessary to ensure that the translated text conveys all the information contained in the source text with the greatest possible completeness, with strict observance of the norms of the target language. In other words, transformation is a method of logical thinking, with the help of which the translator reveals the meaning of a foreign word in the context and finds a correspondence to it that does not coincide with the dictionary one. It is also the transformation of the sentence structure in the process of translation in accordance with the norms of the TL.

Currently, there are many approaches to the division of translation transformations into types and types, many classifications proposed by various authors (L.S. Barkhudarov, V.N. Komissarov, Ya.I. Retsker, A.D. Schweitzer, V.V. Alimov, etc.). For example, according to one of the classifications L.S. Barkhudarov, all types of transformations carried out in the process of translation, for the sake of convenience of description, can be reduced to four elementary types:

1. permutations(changing the location of language elements in the translated text compared to the original text);

2. substitutions(in the process of translation, both grammatical and lexical units can be replaced, in connection with which we can talk about grammatical and lexical substitutions);

3. additions(a type of translation transformation based on the restoration of "relevant words" omitted in the FL during translation);

4. omissions(a phenomenon just the opposite of adding).

However, it should be emphasized that this kind of division is largely approximate and conditional. Firstly, in a number of cases one or another transformation can be interpreted both as one and as another type of transformation. Secondly, these four types of elementary translation transformations are rare in practice "in their pure form" - they usually combine with each other, taking on the character of complex, "complex" transformations. It should also be remembered that, within the framework of the description of the translation process, transformations are considered not as a means of analyzing the relationship between FL and TL units (as well as their dictionary correspondences), but as translation methods, which the translator can resort to in cases where there is no dictionary match or cannot be used in this context.

V modern translation theory transformations are defined as transformations by which the translator makes the transition from original units to translation units equivalent to them when it is impossible to use in a specific context regular correspondences for these units of the original. Translation transformations are divided into lexical, grammatical, stylistic. Grammar transformations with a more detailed classification are usually divided into morphological and syntactic. In addition, there are complexlexico-grammaticaltransformation, where the transformations simultaneously affect either the lexical and grammatical units of the original, or are interlevel, i.e. carry out the transition from lexical units to grammatical ones (and vice versa). Retsker Ya.I. indicates that this is due to the fact that many grammatical problems are not purely grammatical, but are closely related to lexical problems.

Using morphological transformations one part of speech is replaced by another or several parts of speech. At syntactic transformations there is a change in the syntactic functions of words and phrases, which in the process of translation is often accompanied by a restructuring of the syntactic structure of the sentence. Lexical transformations represent deviations from direct dictionary correspondences and mainly arise due to the fact that the volume of meanings of lexical units of the FL and TL does not match. However, in the process of translation activity, transformations are often mixed type.

It should also be remembered that the basic concept of translation theory is notion of equivalence. When they say that a phrase in a foreign language and its translation are equivalent to each other, they mean, first of all, their semantic equivalence(i.e. correlation with the same objective situation). HELL. Schweitzer distinguishes two types of semantic equivalence - component and denotative. Considering that the translator deals with meaning, i.e. one of the semantic components of a linguistic unit, we can say that semantic equivalence is achieved due to the presence in the text of the FL and the text of the TL of the same semes. In this case, the texts are in relation component semantic equivalence. The second kind of semantic equivalence, called denotative, is associated with the phenomenon of linguistic selectivity, the essence of which is that one and the same object, one and the same objective situation can be described from different angles. Thus, to achieve semantic equivalence, various translation transformations are required. For example, at the level of component equivalence mainly used transformations affecting grammatical the structure of the utterance. Level of denotative equivalence requires more complex lexico-grammatical transformations, entailing changes in the semantic structure of the statement.

Consider different types of transformations used in the translation process.

Morphological transformations include the replacement of parts of speech, the features of the transfer of the meaning of the article, types of temporal categories, morphological categories of number and gender, etc. in the translation. Since there is no grammatical category in the Russian language article , the translator has to convey the various functions of the articles by lexical or syntactic means, which presents certain difficulties in translation. This happens due to the fact that, despite its extremely abstract meaning, the article requires a semantic expression, since in English the definiteness / indefiniteness of the meaning of a noun (category of determinativity) is expressed by the article. Therefore, when translating from English into Russian, one should remember the need to convey in some cases the meaning of the articles, because when the translator loses sight of this necessity, the meaning of the Russian sentence suffers. As you know, both articles have a pronominal origin: definite article derived from the demonstrative pronoun " that", a uncertain- from an indefinite pronoun that goes back to the numeral " one". These original meanings of the articles sometimes appear in their modern usage. In such cases, their lexical meaning must be conveyed in translation, otherwise the Russian sentence would be incomplete and inaccurate, since the denotative meaning of the articles is semantically an integral part of the entire semantic content of the sentence. In cases where articles, in addition to their grammatical function (the function of a noun marker), also carry a semantic load, acting as a definition, they are usually translated by adjectives, relative pronouns and other parts of speech. The meaning of articles in the vast majority of cases is conveyed by lexical means, sometimes by word order; transformations such as substitution and addition(the absence of the category of the article causes in the Russian translation the need to replace it with another lexical unit, which leads to the addition), as well as omission(if the article does not carry a certain semantic load, it can be skipped during translation). Usually definite article translated by adjectives current, current, present, (now) existing, current etc., acting as a definition, as well as relative pronouns that one, that one, that one, all, all and other words depending on the context. Often the definite article has to be passed lexical expansion(i.e. additional and/or clarifying words). So, for example, the noun war" with a definite article, depending on the context, can also mean The Second World War, and Vietnam War and etc . Sometimes the definite article appears in its original meaning of the demonstrative pronoun from which it originated. If the translator forgets about such a moment, the Russian sentence will be incomplete and inaccurate: The England he once knew no longer existed. - Toy The England he once knew was no more.

Indefinite article often translated into words such as: one of, one, some, any, new, such, famous, any etc. Sometimes the indefinite article is used in its original meaning of the numeral “ one". And in this case, the meaning of the article must be conveyed when translating from adding appropriate tokens: He has a few objections, but not a singe objection is important. He has several objections, but none one of them does not seem important. The need to comply with the rules of word compatibility in Russian when translating requires lexical sweep in cases where a noun with an indefinite article is preceded by such verbs as: to call for, to announce, to seek, to favor, to propose, to drive, to plan, to wage etc., or nouns with the same meaning : proposal, appeal etc. For example, The US President plans to call for a new round of global trade negotiations. - The President of the United States intends to call for holding new round of world trade negotiations.

In russian language infinitive as an indefinite form of the verb, it does not form constructions and complexes, and in a sentence, most often, it is a circumstance of the goal (sometimes a definition). This raises some difficulty in translating the English infinitive. Consider the cases when the infinitive forms specific constructions.

Design"objective (accusative) case with infinitive", or " object infinitive phrase", consists of an "introducing" verb, a pronoun in the object case or a noun in the general case, and an infinitive. In a sentence, this construction performs the function of a complex object. This turnover is translated into Russian by an additional subordinate clause with conjunctions what to how. The noun or pronoun becomes the subject, and the infinitive becomes the predicate of the Russian subordinate clause: If the Government expected the tenants to take the increase lying down, they were very much mistaken. If the government expected that tenants calmly react to an increase in rent, it was greatly mistaken.

Design"nominative case with infinitive", or " subjective infinitive phrase”, consists of a subject, an “introducing” verb and an infinitive. In a sentence, it performs the function of a complex subject. The main sentence is an indefinite personal sentence of the type: "say", "report", "know": The delegation is reported to have left for Moscow. - It is known that delegation left to Moscow.

Infinitive complex with the preposition “for” can perform the functions of a circumstance in a sentence and, as a rule, is translated into Russian by a subordinate clause introduced by conjunctions what, in order to: Present plans are for the Prime Minister to make a statement early next week. - The current plans are for the prime minister to speak with a statement early next week.

In some cases, for an adequate translation, one has to resort to a special type of morphological transformation - replacement parts of speech. Substitutions of parts of speech are caused by a number of reasons: the absence of a corresponding part of speech with a given lexical meaning, compatibility requirements and different use of words, etc.: Australian prosperity was followed by a slump. - For economic prosperity australia followed by a crisis.

Schweitzer A.D. identifies 3 types syntactic transformations – internal, external and interphrasal.

Among internal transformations permutations. Permutation as a kind of translation transformation is a change in the order of linguistic elements in the translated text compared to the original text. The elements that can be rearranged are usually words, phrases, parts of a complex sentence and independent sentences in the structure of the text. However, permutation in its pure form is extremely rare. Usually it is accompanied by other types of transformations - the replacement of parts of speech, the introduction of additional words and lexical substitutions. Also among the internal syntactic transformations, an important place is given to substitutions at the level of sentence members(for example, replacing the complement with the subject or subject complement, replacing the active construction with a passive one, etc.). In addition, among internal transformations there are additions and omissions proposal members.

Among external transformations the most common type of substitutions at the syntax level. For example, replacing a simple sentence with a complex one: Others rage in frustration against their predicament. – Other people fall into an impotent rage, when thinking about your future.

Interphrase syntactic transformations- these are transformations associated with the redistribution of interphrase links, that is, with a change in the number of sentences during translation. A special type of such transformations is actual sentence division- the division of one complex (less often - simple) sentence into two or more simple ones. Another kind of interphrase transformations is the combination of two simple sentences into one complex one - combination of proposals: Some of them are mentally unstable. Others refuse to work because of fear. - Some are psychologically unbalanced, others refuse to work because of fear.

Based on the classifications of transformations proposed V.N. Komisarov, L.S. Barkhudarov and Ya.I. Retzker, lexical and lexico-grammatical transformations can be reduced to the following types:

1) concretization, 2) generalization, 3) compensation, 4) explication, 5) antinomic translation, 6) logical synonymy, 7) semantic development, 8) metonymic translation. Let's take a look at these transformations.

Specification- lexical transformation, during which a word or phrase FL with a broader subject-logical meaning is replaced by a word or phrase TL with a narrower meaning. In some cases, the use of concretization is due to the fact that the TL does not have a word with such a broad meaning. Thus, the English noun thing” has a very abstract meaning and is often translated into Russian using concretization ( thing, object, matter, fact, case, situation, situation, being etc.): Things are slowly getting better in the Iraqi capital. – Gradually in Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, situation is changing for the better.

Generalization- lexical transformation, during which the unit of the FL, which has a narrower meaning, is replaced by the unit of the TL with a broader meaning, i.e. inverse instantiation transformation: This newspaper makes a feature of sports. - In this newspaper, sports are given visible spot.

Compensation- lexico-grammatical transformation, used in cases where certain elements of the text in FL for one reason or another do not have equivalents in TL. In these cases, in order to make up for the semantic loss caused by the fact that one or another unit of foreign language remained untranslated or not fully translated (not in the entire scope of its meaning), the translator conveys the same information by some other means, and not necessarily in the same in the same place as in FL: An attack on Iraq could certainly fail... On the other hand, it might just succeed, leaving anyone who resisted it in bad odor with the US for years to come. – A military invasion of Iraq can certainly fail... On the other hand, it can succeed, leaving the countries opposed to disgrace the US for many years.

Explication(or descriptive translation) is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which a lexical unit of the original language is replaced by a phrase that explicates its meaning, that is, gives a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in the target language: By the time he left Aberdeen to go to Oxford to study English , conservatism was in his blood. By the time he left Aberdeen for Oxford to study English, adherence to the course of the Conservative Party was his legacy.

Antonymic translation- a complex lexical and grammatical substitution, the essence of which is the transformation of an affirmative construction into a negative one or vice versa, a negative one into an affirmative one, accompanied by the replacement of one of the words of the translated FL sentence with its antonym in the TL. The general spoke to each man in the front rank. - Bypassing the formation, General didn't miss not a single soldier.

Logical synonymy- lexico-grammatical transformation, the essence of which is to replace the unit of the FL with the unit of the TL, which is its synonym for the given context. It is necessary to emphasize the difference between concretization and logical synonymy. The difference lies in the fact that, when concretized, the meaning used in translation can be considered as a particular concept, logically included in the general meaning of the word in the original. With logical synonymy, the meaning of the word in translation is not part of the replaced concept. It is equal to him, but not always, but only in this context. The “Start” which weighs 60 tons has one massive advantage over other rocket carriers in that it does not need a conventional launch site. - The 60-ton "Start" has serious advantage over other rocket carriers - a cosmodrome is practically not needed to launch it.

Semantic development (modulation) is called the replacement of a word or phrase IL by a TL unit, the meaning of which is logically derived from the value of the original unit. A lot of schools were home for holidays already. – Many schools already holidays have begun.(Therefore, the schoolchildren were already at home.)

Metonymy is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the presence of real connections between them. So, if instead of the direct name of the subject of speech, the name of some other subject is used, which is closely connected with it as a condition for its existence, or its permanent belonging, or as a result characteristic of it, etc., then the thought receives a more vivid expression, since the reported concept is enriched by additional concrete representations. This is the point metonymic translation as a lexical transformation. Buckingham Palace is not expected to issue a statement on this matter. - They believe that Buckingham Palace(press office of Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain) will not make a statement on this issue.

Stylistic transformations. essence stylistic transformations consists in changing the stylistic coloring of the translated unit. The main types of transformations are the replacement of the verbal composition, the image, the removal of the figurative meaning, the change in the order of words, the full translation (that is, conveying the semantic content of the original without omissions and abbreviations) with a commentary. I feel the anger boiling inside me. - I feel that I boil. When transferring metaphors the anger boiling transformations are inevitable.

Let's consider an example that can serve as an illustration of the interconnectedness of the means used by Ch. Dickens in the novel "David Copperfield" to describe an evil and heartless woman - Miss Murdstone, the sister of David Copperfield's future stepfather. When she paid the coachman she took her money out of a hard steel purse, and she kept the purse in a very jail of a bag which hung upon her arm by a heavy chain, and shut up like a bite. In this passage, all the stylistic means used by Dickens are epithets: a hard steel purse, a very jail of a bag, a heavy chain and comparison: like a bite- are not minor details that the translator could ignore. They have a deep semantic meaning and vividly characterize Miss Murdstone. Describing such seemingly external accessories, Dickens actually reveals the inner appearance of this woman. In the translation of this novel by E. Lann and A. Krivtsova, the translators resort to regular transformations: When she paid the coachman, she took money out of a hard metal purse, and she kept the purse, as in a prison, in a bag that hung over her shoulder on a heavy chain and snapped shut as if trying to bite. Trying to preserve all the images of this description, translators do the following: epithet a very jail, attached to a noun by a preposition of, they translate by comparison like in prison”, because the expression of an epithet using a preposition in Russian is impossible. Comparison like a bite, expressed by a noun, they convey by comparison expressed by verb forms - « as if striving to bite, since the meaning of the Russian word " bite" and English bite do not fully match. Translation by noun "(like) bite' would be wrong and meaningless.

so, transformations are the essence of the translation process. However, their use is not regulated by a clear system of rules and relies mainly on the experience of the translator and his intuition, so it is necessary to use transformations taking into account certain principles, among which are:

- motivation(the use of transformation should be caused by the need to achieve the equivalence of the impact of IT and PT on their addressees);

- minimality(of all the possible transformations, the one that allows you to make fewer semantic-structural deviations from the original text is more preferable);

principled limitation measures of translation transformations (transformations should not significantly change the original).

Similar information.

The site "Portal of translators translations.web-3.ru" provides an overview of the classifications of translation transformations.

Fiterman A. M. and Levitskaya T. R. distinguish three types of translation transformations:
grammatical transformations,
stylistic transformations,
lexical transformations.

Schweitzer A. D. suggests dividing transformations into four groups:
transformations at the component level of semantic valence,
transformations at the pragmatic level,
transformations taking place at the referential level,
transformations at the stylistic level - compression and expansion.

Retsker Ya. I. calls two types of transformations:
grammatical transformations in the form of replacement of parts of speech or members of a sentence,
lexical transformations consist in concretization, generalization, differentiation of meanings, antonymic translation, compensation for losses arising in the process of translation, as well as in semantic development and holistic transformation.

Minyar-Beloruchev R. K. called three types of transformations:
lexical,
grammar,
semantic.

The concept of V. N. Komissarov is reduced to the following types of transformations:
lexical,
grammar,
complex.

Speaking of lexical transformations, he names transliteration, translation transcription, tracing, some lexico-semantic substitutions. For example, modulation, instantiation and generalization. The grammatical transformations are literal translation (or syntactic assimilation), grammatical substitutions (replacements of sentence members, word forms, parts of speech) and sentence division. Complex transformations can also be called lexico-grammatical. These include explication (in other words, descriptive translation), antonymic translation and compensation.

Barkhudarov L.S., a well-known linguist, named four types of transformations (transformations) that take place in the course of translation work. This:
permutations,
substitutions,
omissions,
additions.

The techniques used in permutation are changing the order of the components of a complex sentence, as well as changing the place of words and phrases. Barkhudarov included compensation, syntactic replacements in the structure of a complex sentence, replacement of parts of speech, sentence components and word forms, concretization and generalization, segmentation and association of a sentence, replacement of a cause with an effect (and vice versa), antonymic translation as methods of replacement. Omissions and additions have corresponding types of transformations - omission and addition.

A. B. Shevnin and N. P. Serov distinguish two main types of translation transformations in their classification:
lexical transformations,
grammatical transformations.

L. K. Latyshev identifies six types of translation transformations:
lexical transformations,
stylistic transformations,
morphological transformations,
syntactic transformations,
mixed transformations.

Shchetinkin V.E., names the following types of translation transformations:
lexical,
stylistic. grammatical.

VE Shchetinkin divides all transformations of this type into four subtypes. Among them:
permutations,
omissions,
substitutions,
additions.

Types of translation transformations

Diploma work "Types of translation transformations".

Chapter 1. General theoretical questions of translation
1.1 Translation theory
1.2 Denotative theory of translation
1.3 Transformational theory of translation
1.4 Semantic theory of translation
1.5 Translation transformations and their classifications

Chapter 2. Lexical transformations
2.1. Transcription and transliteration
2.2. Tracing
2.3. Lexico-semantic substitutions
2.3.1 Specification
2.3.2 Generalization
2.4 Modulation or meaning development

Chapter 3
3.1 Syntactic similitude
3.2. Division of the proposal
3.3 Consolidation of proposals
3.4. Pure grammatical substitutions
3.5 Antonymic translation
3.6 Explication or descriptive translation
3.7 Compensation

Bibliography:

1. Barkhudarov L.S. On the surface and deep structure of the sentence // Questions of linguistics. - 1973. - No. 3 - p. 50-61
2. Barkhudarov L.S. Language and translation. M.: International relations, 1975 - 190s.
3. Breus E.V. Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English: Textbook. 2nd ed., rev. and add.-M.: Publishing house of URAO, 2000. - 208s.
4. Kazakova T.A. Practical foundations of translation. English (Russia.-Series: Learning foreign languages. - St. Petersburg: "Soyuz Publishing House", - 2000, - 320s.
5. Komissarov V.N. A word about translation - M .: International relations - 1973 - 215s.
6. Komissarov V.N. Linguistics of translation - M .: International relations - 1980 - 167s.
7. Latyshev L.K. Translation course: Translation equivalence and how to achieve it. - M .: International relations, 1981 - 248s.
8. Latyshev L.K. Translation: problems of theory, practice and teaching methods: A book for teachers of schools with in-depth study of the German language. - M .: Education - 1988. - 159s.
9. Levitskaya T.R., Fiterman A.M. Manual for translation from English into Russian. - M .: Higher School, 1973. - 136 p.
10. Lvovskaya E.D. Theoretical problems of translation (based on the Spanish language). - M .: Higher School, 1985. - 232 p.
11. Minyar-Beloruchev R.K. Theory and methods of translation - M .: Moscow Lyceum, 1996. - 208s.
12. Minyar-Beloruchev R.K. How to become a translator? / Executive editor M.Ya.Blokh.-M .: "Gothic", 1999. - 176p.
13. The World of Translation, or the Eternal Search for Mutual Understanding / A. Chuzhakin, P. Palazhchenko. – M.: R.Valent, 1999.-192p.
14. Retsker Ya.I. Should alliteration be conveyed in publicistic translation? "Translator's Notebooks" No. 3, M., 1966, p.73
15. Retsker Ya.I. Translation theory and translation practice. - M .: International relations, - 1974. - 216 p.
16. Retsker Ya.I. What are lexical transformations? "Translator's Notebooks" No. 17, M .: International Relations, 1980, pp. 72-84
17. Salinger J.D. Works. In 2 vols. T.1. Short stories (1940-1948); Catcher in the Rye: Per. from English. / Note. A.M. Zverev; Kharkiv: Folio; Belgorod: Folio-Transit, 1997. - 339p.
18. Fedorov A.V. Fundamentals of the general theory of translation (linguistic problems): For in-comrade and faculty. foreign lang. Textbook - M .: Higher School. 1983. - 303p.
19. Chernyakhovskaya L.A. Dividing and combining sentences in translation in order to preserve the components of the semantic structure // Foreign languages at school. - 1971 - No. 4 - p.21-30
20. Schweitzer A.D. Translation theory. Status, problems, aspects - M.: Nauka. 1988. - 215p.
21 Salinger J.D. The Catcher in the Rye: A book to read in English. - Kiev.: Publishing house "Knowledge" - 1999. - 276 p.

Also on topic

What can I take on the exam

Exam test in English

How to pass the exam to a graduate of past years: step by step instructions

Characteristics of the Aries man - Bull from A to Z

Preparation for the GIA and the Unified State Exam in social studies