Bolivia presentation. Presentation on Bolivia

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The Republic of Bolivia is a state in Central South America with an area of ​​1,098,580 km2, and holds several world altitude records. The capital of Bolivia is Sucre, but the actual seat of government is La Paz - the highest capital in the world. In the city center at an altitude of approximately 4000m above sea level, it is difficult to breathe due to lack of oxygen. Even higher are the poor areas, and only the richest townspeople settle in the deep gorge, where the air is humid and less thin. Bolivia has an administrative territorial division of nine departments. The head of state and government is the president. Legislative body - National Congress

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Geographical position

Bolivia ranks 27th in the list of countries by area after Ethiopia. The country has been landlocked since 1879, when it lost the coastal region of Antofagasta in the War of the Pacific with Chile. However, Bolivia has access to the Atlantic Ocean - along the Paraguay River. Extending no more than 950 miles (1,503 kilometers) from north to south and 800 miles from east to west, Bolivia is bordered on the north and east by Brazil, on the southeast by Paraguay, on the south by Argentina and on the southwest from Chile and Peru. The largest cities in Bolivia are La Paz, El Alto, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.

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Population

Population - 9.9 million Annual growth - 1.7% Average life expectancy - 64 years for men, 70 years for women. Ethno-racial composition - Indians 55% (mainly Quechua and Aymara), mestizos 30%, whites 15%. Languages ​​- 3 official languages: Spanish 60.7%, Quechua 21.2%, Aymara 14.6%; other languages ​​3.6% Religions - Catholics 59%, Protestants (Evangelical Methodists) 11%, Atheists and agnostics 12%, Incanism 15%, Buddhism and others 3%.

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Economy

Bolivia has rich natural resources - tin, gas, oil, zinc, tungsten, surya, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower resources. At the same time, Bolivia remains one of the poorest and least economically developed countries in Latin America. GDP per capita is 4.8 thousand dollars (150th place in the world). Unemployment - 8.5%, below the poverty level - 60% of the population. Agriculture (11% of GDP, 40% of workers) - soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugar cane, rice, potatoes; logging. livestock: cattle, sheep Industry (37% of GDP, 17% of workers) - tin and oil mining, food processing, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing. The service sector accounts for 52% of GDP, 43% of workers.

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Attractions

Bolivia is one of the highest mountainous countries in the world, the most isolated and distinctive country in South America. Bolivia is a country where the majority of the population are descendants of South American Indians - the Amerindians. The inhabitants of Bolivia to this day retain the cultural foundations and beliefs of their ancestors. The Andes, which gave shelter to the distinctive Bolivian nation, also give unforgettable experiences to adventure seekers who find themselves here: mighty snow-capped mountain peaks and volcanoes, mesmerizing valleys, salt lakes, impenetrable jungles and desert pampas.

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The highland city of Sucre is the heart and soul of Bolivia, the city which is the official capital of the country. The historic center of the city is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and this is not surprising - the charming colonial buildings of the city are distinguished by a unity of style, which is sacredly protected by the local authorities. All buildings are whitewashed white, on the facades of the white buildings there are dark balconies and doors, on the back side of the houses there are cozy courtyards... In the vicinity of Sucre lies the Valley of the Dinosaurs, a curious area from a historical point of view, in which traces of dinosaurs, animals and plants of the prehistoric era are preserved Earth.

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The de facto capital of Bolivia, La Paz, is the highest capital in the world and the starting point for traveling around the country. The charming colonial architecture of the city against the backdrop of unforgettable mountain landscapes, the colorful clothes of the locals, the special culture and style of behavior of the locals, the national cuisine - La Paz is in every way ideal for acclimatization to the highlands and getting to know the culture of this unique country.

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Salar de Uyuni

The largest dry salt lake in the world, Salar de Yuni, is located high in the mountains of southern Bolivia. The stunning landscapes of this area are unique: a huge salt desert against the backdrop of the majestic Andes, which during the rains is covered with a layer of water, creating a unique mirror effect. The region has many natural attractions: geysers spewing columns of water, thermal springs, habitats of pink flamingos, tall cacti.

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Madidi National Park

The unique Madidi National Park, which covers an area of ​​about 19 thousand square kilometers, is located in the upper reaches of the great Amazon River. Madidi is considered one of the most biologically diverse regions on the planet. Its territories stretch from the cold glaciers of the Andes to the hot tropical forests of the Tuichi River. Stunning landscapes, wildness and remoteness of these places, trekking into the jungle, watching wild animals and birds force travelers to overcome a long and difficult path to this unique natural corner of the planet.

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Lake Titicaca

The highest mountain lake in the world, in whose waters there is a unique lake archipelago. Most of the 36 islands of the archipelago are inhabited by representatives of the ancient Aymara and Quechua Indian peoples. The islands contain the remains of ancient civilizations, the most interesting of which are located on the islands of the Sun and Moon, where, according to legend, the Inca civilization arose. For a long time, the descendants of the ancient civilization of Uro have been constructing floating islands of Uros from reeds, which drift on the lake... Boats ply between the islands, which allow tourists to become better acquainted with the traditions of ancient peoples and enjoy the beauty of this unique natural corner of the planet. The main city on the lake on the Bolivian side is Copacabana.

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Samaipata

The small sleepy town of Samaipata, located high in the mountains, gives access to a mystical place full of mysteries of ancient civilizations - Fuerte de Samaipata. A huge hill, on the stone surface of which there are carved drawings - according to historians, associated with the beliefs and rituals of ancient Indian civilizations. Near the hill are the remains of an ancient city. The town of Samaipata itself is full of cozy hotels and restaurants and is an excellent base for exploring the mysteries of antiquity.

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Startsova Tatyana

Bolivia. Information about the state, wonders of the world, the city of Potosi, the city of Sucre, Noel Kempf Mercado National Park

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Presentation on the topic: “Latin American countries”

Startsova Tatyana, 10th grade student, GBOU secondary school No. 1465 Teacher: Svetlana Anatolyevna Popova

Information about the state: Bolivia is a state in the central part of South America. It borders on the north and northeast with Brazil, on the southeast with Paraguay, on the south with Argentina, on the southwest and west with Peru and Chile. Area 1098.6 thousand km2. Population 4.8 million people. Landlocked. The capital according to the constitution is Sucre, in fact it is La Paz. Flag of Bolivia:

Wonders of the World. Bolivia is home to many Wonders of the World. There are both cultural and natural ones. 6 of them are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List: City of Potosi Jesuit Mission in Chiquitos City of Sucre Fort Samaipata Ancient ruins of Tiwanaku Noel Kempff Mercado National Park

City of Potosi A long time ago, the Incas knew that in the depths of this mountain, whose height is 4800 meters, there are large reserves of silver, but people did not mine them. But the conquistadors from Spain, attracted by stories about fabulous reserves of silver, hurried to the places indicated to them.

The mountain abounding in silver was later named Cerro Rico, which means “Rich Mountain.” Very quickly, at the foot of this mountain, the city of Potosi, the highest city in the world, grew out of the ground.

Jesuit Missions in Chiquitos Jesuit Missions in Chiquitos - a cultural and historical monument consisting of six settlements: San Javier, San Rafael de Velasco, San José de Chiquitos, Concepción, San Miguel de Velasco, Santa Anna de Velasco

It is known for its unique eclecticism of European and Native American cultures. The monument consists of six cities - former missionary centers founded by the Jesuits to spread Catholicism in South America.

City of Sucre. Many ecclesiastical structures remain here, such as the churches of San Lazaro, San Francisco and Santo Domingo, which show a fusion of local architectural traditions with architectural styles imported from Europe. The city of Sucre, the first capital of Bolivia, was built by the Spaniards in the first half of the 16th century.

Samaipata Fort. Fort Samaipata is a unique testimony to pre-Hispanic traditions and beliefs and has no parallel in the Americas. This is a reddish sandstone mountain, 250 meters long and 60 meters wide. Representatives of pre-Columbian culture carved images of feathers of birds, jaguars, and snakes on the stone surface. Stairs and square and triangular benches are carved into the thickness of the mountain.

Ancient ruins of Tiwanaku. The ancient ruins of Tiwanaku in Bolivia are a unique mystery of history, still inexplicable. The ancient ruins are located near the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca. The settlement of Tiwanaku dates back to 1500 BC and was the center of the Pukina state. The ancient ruins hide a lot of mysteries and are unique in their location. Objects are precisely constructed according to the orientation of the starry sky. The largest blocks at Tiwanaku weigh 400 tons, compared to the largest blocks at Giza, which weigh 200 tons.

The Pyramid of Akapana is the main attraction of Bolivia, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2000. As "evidence of the power of the empire, which played a major role in the progress of the civilization of pre-Columbian America"

Noel Kempf Mercado National Park. Noel Kempf Mercado is the most beautiful and isolated nature reserve in Bolivia. It is here that the plateau praised by Conan Doyle in his “The Lost World” is hidden - the Huanchaca Plateau, rising 500 meters above the tropical forest

Noel Kempf Mercado National Park. . The park has many rainbow waterfalls, orchid “bays” and a maximum concentration of rare fauna: there are even pink freshwater dolphins. The endless list of the park's inhabitants includes tapirs, howler monkeys, armadillos, as well as 620 species of birds and a whole army of reptiles - including the black-tailed monkey.

List of useful links: 1) http://newzz.in.ua/uploads/posts/201103/1301173727_387258.jp 2) http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1% 82%D0%B%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA% D0%B 3) http://latamerika.ru/ 4) http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%83%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%82%D0% B5-%D0%B4%D0%B5-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0

The Republic of Bolivia (Republica de Bolivia) is a landlocked country in South America with an area of ​​424,164 square miles (1,098,581 square kilometers). The country has been landlocked since losing its Pacific coast to Chile in a war from 1879 to 1884 Extending no more than 950 miles (1,503 kilometers) from north to south and 800 miles from east to west, Bolivia is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, and to the south. west with Chile and Peru. Lake Ticicaca, the second largest lake in South America and the first in the world for commercial navigation, is shared with Peru. However, the official capital is the city of Sucre, where the Supreme Court is located, but the actual capital is La Paz, where executive and legislative branches of government function. Although only one third of Bolivia is located in the Andes mountains, it is mainly considered a highland country because it is the most developed and has the highest population density. Part of its territory is in or near the Andes. The country itself has a rich history: it was once part of the ancient Inca Empire and later became part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, providing the homeland with vast amounts of silver. The official languages ​​are Spanish and the Aymara and Quechua Indians. The vast majority of the population are Roman Catholics. Bolivia, although rich in mineral resources, remains an underdeveloped country whose economic life is based mainly on agriculture and the production of raw materials, the extraction of natural gas and tin.

EARTH.

Relief.

Bolivia's western mountainous region, one of the most populous regions in the world, forms the heart of the country. The Andes reach their greatest width and complexity here. To the west along the borders of Chile is the Cordillera Occidental, which contains a large number of active volcanoes and is crowned by the Republic's greatest peak, Mount Sayama, at more than 24,400 m. feet (6,523 kilometers) above sea level. To the east is the Eastern Cordillera, whose magnificent northern part near La Paz is called the Cordillera Real (royal chain). Between the ridges lies the flat, barren terrain of the Altiplano (High Mountain Plateau). The plateau is a relatively flat depression of about 500 miles long and 80 wide, lying at an altitude of ~12,250 feet. The surface of this huge plateau, composed mainly of water- and wind-eroded mountain deposits, slopes gently to the South; its smoothness is softened by occasional hills and mountain ridges. The boundaries of the Altiplano are characterized by large scarps and spurs.

Water system.

The waters of Bolivia are divided into 3 parts: the Amazon basin in the northeast, the Rio da la Plateau basin in the extreme southeast, and the Lake Titicaca basin in the Altiplano. The vast swampy plains along the Beni and Mamore rivers, which belong to the Amazon basin, include lakes and lagoons, some of them quite large, such as Lake Rogoaguado. In the vicinity of the Paraguay River (which runs parallel to the eastern border of Bolivia and is part of the La Plata basin) there are several small lakes, of which the largest are Caquerez and Mandiore. To the north are the large marshes of Harayes. This area, like the northeast, is prone to flooding during the summer. The third water system is located in the Altiplano, which is the largest inland waters region in South America. One of the highest mountain lakes, Lake Tikicaca, is located here. The Desaguadero River flows from it; Lake Poopo, into which this river flows. There are also shallow salt lakes in the Altiplano. The water system of Bolivia is landlocked and therefore all excess liquid intensively evaporates and is absorbed by dry soils. Lake Titicaca occupies ~8,500 square kilometers. It is the largest alpine lake in South America. It is located at an altitude of ~12,500 (3,810 km) feet and is 120 miles long and no more than 50 miles wide. Its maximum depth is more than 900 feet (~300 meters). There are many islands on the surface of the lake. The lake is freshwater. Lake Poopo, unlike Titicaca, is salty and shallow.

SOILS.

The soils of the Altiplano are mainly clayey, sandy and rocky, dry and infertile. The slopes are destroyed by strong winds and rainfall. There are many salt marshes in the south. But in the north there are rich silty soils where the waters of Titicaca receded over centuries. It is believed that Tiaguanaco is an important ancient Inca city, which now ten miles from the southern shore of Lake Titicaca was once on the shore itself and was a port. Due to this, the area around this city has rich silty soils.

CLIMATE.

Despite the fact that Bolivia is entirely located in the tropics, its climate has all gradations of temperatures from the heat of the equatorial lowlands to the arctic cold. In the Andes, contrasts in temperature and precipitation depend more on the altitude above sea level than on the distance from the Equator. The difference in summer and winter temperatures is low. Precipitation is scanty, mainly in the form of summer showers in December and January. Average temperatures are between 7 and 11 degrees Celsius. But winter temperatures are lower. Nights are cold throughout the year. In the north, Lake Titicaca significantly moderates the climate. It is often cloudless and wonderful clean air, which gives charming views of the Altiplano. And in the Yungas valleys it is damp and cloudy throughout the year. The average annual temperature in Bolivia ranges from 17 to 20 degrees Celsius. And precipitation in Bolivia falls more than 1350 millimeters per year, the bulk of which falls in December , January and February.

PLANT LIFE.

Vast areas of the southern Altiplano are occupied by salt marshes and deserts. But to the north, tough tufted grass grows, which llamas feed on. The Altiplano is devoid of trees, but eucalyptus trees are successfully grown in the valleys around Lake Titicaca. The Yungas are clad in a luxurious jungle, which includes a huge variety of tropical plants. Among them: the cinchona tree, from which quinine is extracted, and the coca bush, a source of cocaine. In the rainforests of the Amazon (Selva), the rubber tree, Brazil nut and mahogany grow.

ANIMAL WORLD.

In the Bolivian highlands, various breeds of camels, llama, alpaca, and guanaco, stand out among the animals; their homeland is the Andes. The largest predators among birds, condors, are found in the Andes, which nest at an altitude of ~3-4 kilometers. Many smaller birds and waterfowl - coots, cormorants, ducks, geese, gulls live near Lake Titicaca. And large flocks of flamingos live near lakes Poopo. In the Amazon basin there is an abundance of fish and a large number of frogs, toads, lizards, billions of different insects. There are also rare animals such as armadillos, anteaters, wild pig, puma, many varieties of rodents and a flightless bird similar to an ostrich, although and much smaller in size. Among the rich fauna of the northern forests are the jaguar, sloth, tapir, monkeys. A large number of reptiles are also found in Bolivia. Among them is the caiman, a type of crocodile.

FORM OF SETTLEMENTS.

Bolivia has 3 main populated areas: the Altiplano, Valles and the Santa Cruz region in Oriente. The Altplano, which occupies a tenth of Bolivia, is high and cool. The Incas found the air here healthier and more invigorating than in the hot, damp valleys. The Northern Altiplano remains the most densely populated region of Bolivia. Here you will find the cities of La Paz and Oruro. The city of La Paz is the largest and most important city in Bolivia. Little colonial architecture survives there. La Paz grew and developed rapidly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a railway center and de facto capital of the country. The city's industrial areas are located high on the sides of the valley, shopping areas below them, and middle-class residences on the lower level.

The other cities of the Altiplano Oruro, Uyuni, and Tupiza are also railway centers and are associated with the mining industry. Potosi in the east of the Altiplano should be given special attention. In 1545, the Spanish discovered the richest reserves of silver on the slopes of Mount Potosi (Cerro Rico). In the mid-seventeenth century Potosi had 160,000 inhabitants then it was the largest city in the Americas. Even now, Potosi, located at an altitude of over 13,000 feet, is the highest city of its size in the world. It is one of the few cities in Bolivia that has retained its architectural identity after many years.

The most important cities in the Valles were founded in the 16th century and include Cochabamba, Sucre, and Tarija. All three cities are surrounded by farms, orchards and pastures. Cochabamba is the largest, busiest, and most accessible of the cities; Tarija is the most isolated; its mountain roads are inaccessible and the city has never been connected to the Bolivian railway system. Unlike Altiplano, the climate is temperate. , and lower areas are more acceptable.

The east is the largest and least populated area. Santa Cruz is the only large city. It is close to the foothills of the Andes, but is primarily located on plains. Since the mid-1950s, it has been the country's fastest growing agricultural center and a center for natural gas and oil production. By the 1970s, Santa Cruz had overtaken Cochabamba as the second largest. Bolivia's city is a unique example of a long-isolated city in the East that has overtaken the main Andean center. Trinidad is the main city in the center of the remote, extensive, pastoral Beni region, while further north in this Eastern region only a few small towns still survive along the river banks, among the rain forests.

PEOPLE

Ethnic and linguistic groups.

The population of Bolivia consists of three groups: Indians, mestizos (descendants of mixed Indians with Spaniards), and descendants of the Spaniards. After four centuries of mixing it is virtually impossible to measure the percentage of each group, although Indians still make up approximately 60 to 70 percent of the total population. The largest group is the Quechua.

The Indians mainly comprise two distinct groups living in northern Aliplanio who speak the guttural Aymara language, and those who speak the Quechua language of the Incas. The Quechua are more widespread in the Andes, especially in the Valles. Remnants of the plains and forest Indians remain in the East. The large majority of Indians are farmers, miners, factory workers and construction workers. Aymara and Quechua are added to Spanish as the official languages ​​of Bolivia, but a growing number of Indians, particularly in cities, trading centers and new settlements, are fluent speakers in Spanish.

Mestizo people are well represented in offices, crafts, and small businesses in the cities. The traditional minority descendants of the Spaniards have long formed a local aristocracy in small towns and rural areas. Their influence remains, although it has diminished since the National Revolution of 1952.

Few foreigners emigrated to Bolivia. However, a small number of Germans arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and achieved notable success as commercial agents and entrepreneurs, shopkeepers, and accountants. Japanese farmers were among the most successful colonists in the Santa Cruz area. Arriving in the late 1950s and 1960s as a relatively small but skilled group of pioneers, they made important contributions to the economy.

Religious groups.

The Roman Catholic religion has about 95 percent of the total population. At the head of the church hierarchy in Bolivia is the cardinal, the living Sucre. The churches and cathedrals, most of which were built in colonial times, constitute a national architectural treasure. They are built mainly in an extravagant, ornamental style Baroque, although there are some representatives of the Renaissance style (eg La Paz Cathedral) or later styles. Beginning in the 1940s, the Roman Catholic Church received an almost exclusive role in matters of social welfare and education.

In the Indian communities of the Altiplano, some forms of pantheistic pre-Columbian religion are still alive. It includes the Sun God, the legendary creation of the first Inca emperor Maneo Capac and his wife's sister Mama Oclio on the Island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca. The Roman Catholic religion has, over the centuries, adopted some aspects of the Indian religion, assimilating them into the religious life of these communities. There are also various Protestant denominations and a small Jewish community. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Constitution.

DEMOGRAPHY.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Bolivia's population was approximately 1,800,000, and after 25 years of slow population growth, the number reached approximately 2,300,000. Between 1925 and 1950, the population grew at a slightly accelerated rate (despite the losses of the Chaco War), increasing by almost 750,000. The population of 3,000,000 in 1950 grew by more than 2,250,000 over the next 25 years, thanks, firstly, to a decrease in mortality and a constant increase in the birth rate. By the end of the 20th century, the population in 1950 more than doubled.

Urbanization in Bolivia has grown in parallel with population growth. At the beginning of the 20th century, Bolivia's urban population was less than one tenth of the total population, but by 1950 the urban population had more than doubled. By the end of the 20th century, the urban population had grown to about half of the total population.

ECONOMY

Bolivia is well endowed with natural resources, but high production costs, lack of investment, inadequate inland transportation, and a landlocked location have limited development. The average Bolivian income is low, and Bolivia remains one of the poorest countries in South America.

The revolutionary program of 1952-53 included immediate agrarian reform based on the dissolution of large estates, and the nationalization of mines. This led to an initial decrease in agricultural production, a disastrous fall in mining and an increase in wages. During the period of political turmoil, the government tried to accommodate the new workers unions, postponing necessary cuts in the number of employees in the mines and supporting greater efforts in many other areas of the economy. Thus, despite the belated political and social reforms implemented by the revolution, the rate of growth of the national economy remained extremely low. The terribly faltering economy deteriorated greatly in the late 20th century mainly as a result of falling world tin prices, poor harvests, debt payments, and rising inflation rates. Although Bolivia has received a great deal of foreign aid, technical support and World Bank loans over the years, daunting problems with no quick or easy solutions continue to confront the government.

Resources. Bolivia's mineral reserves are the most valuable mineral resources. The country is a major producer of tin; it has reserves of zinc, antimony, tungsten, silver, lead and copper, as well as small amounts of gold. Although tin dominates metals production, Bolivia is a very valuable supplier, comparable to Southeast Asia and because of this particularly vulnerable to global demand for tin. The state-owned mining corporation, Comibol, announced heavy losses and falling production in the 1980s when, Due to the world's surplus of tin, more than two-thirds of mine employees became unemployed.

The development of Bolivia's petroleum resources dates back to the 1920s, when the Standard Petroleum Company of New Jersey acquired a concession to explore and exploit an area in the foothills of the Andes Mountains in southeastern Bolivia. A number of small oil fields were discovered here, but this company was nationalized in 1937 to form the YPFB (Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos). In the mid-1950s, US companies again resumed development in Bolivia, and in 1956 the Bolivian Gulf Oil Company, a branch of the Gulf Oil Corporation, began a decade of successful oil and natural gas development in the Santa Cruz area. In 1966 The Gulf began exporting oil to southern California, through the YPFB pipeline to the Pacific port of Arica (Chile), and increasing sales to domestic markets and Argentina. However, political uncertainty upset the industry, and in 1969 Bolivia nationalized the Gulf oil production company. Although Bolivia began to encourage foreign oil companies again in 1972, production continued to fall due to a lack of investment and the failure of attempts to regain lost confidence. Increased domestic consumption forced the import of some oil in the late 20th century and led to a new wave of Bolivia's association with foreign oil companies.

Natural gas production was more successful, and with the decline in global demand for tin at the end of the 20th century, natural gas became Bolivia's most important export, accounting for more than half of all official revenues by the mid-1980s. Argentina is the main consumer of natural gas. Gas fields with large reserves are concentrated in the Santa Cruz region. Bolivia is also rich in other natural resources, in particular hydroelectric potential, which has been minimally exploited.

PAGE_BREAK-- Agriculture.

Approximately half the working population is employed in agriculture (including a small number of hunters, foresters and fishermen), but farming accounts for only 27 percent of the gross product. Although the peasant market has grown in northern towns and major transport centers on the Altiplano and around Cochabamba, farming remains widespread common in the Andes.

Potatoes and oca (also edible tuber) are the main grain crops in the northern Altiplano, where they are eaten mainly in dried form (known as chuno or tunta). Two important crops that ripen at this high altitude, both highly nutritious, are quinoa and canahu. Llamas and alpacas ascend into the mountains where they perform various agricultural functions, although the use of the llama as a pack animal has declined with the growth of freight transport.

In the Yungas, exceptional coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits, bananas, avocados, pineapples, mangoes, papaya, melons, chilies, sweet potatoes (yams), and cassava represent an amazing variety of crops. Development is limited, however, by poor roads and meager markets. coca (see below TRADE) has a strong international market and high production income has a strong international market and high production income. In the warm, favorable climate of Valles, corn, wheat, barley, alfalfa, grapes, peaches and vegetables grow, and sheep and dairy cattle; The area called the "Garden of Bolivia" is a fertile region with rich potential, an area with systematic irrigation and ever-increasing harvests.

In the East, around Santa Cruz, sugar cane, rice, cotton, and cattle are significant products, developed mainly for the domestic market. There are also large ranches in Beni. Valuable tropical trees grow in the Chaco forests and in the northern rain forests, but most Distances to markets and competition from more accessible areas outside Bolivia limit exploitation.

Industry.

The industrial sector has grown since the 1950s but remains small, despite some benefits from Bolivia's membership in the Andean Group, a regional trade organization. Historically, mineral processing (including petroleum refining) and agricultural processing have dominated Bolivian industry. In the 1970s, industry employed about 10 percent of the working population, but this proportion decreased somewhat in the 1980s. Bolivian tin is extracted primarily from mining mines, which are often very deep and located in difficult, remote areas of the eastern Cordillera at high altitude. Ores from low tin content are difficult to purify. By the end of the 20th century, ores containing less than 1 percent tin were processed. Bolivian smelters, under normal economic conditions, concentrate their production for export, but more complex ores are smelted abroad. The food industry includes flour milling, milk production, sugar refining , brewing and the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Other industries include mechanical engineering, textiles, footwear, furniture, glass, bricks, cement, paper, and a wide range of consumer goods intended for the domestic market with little purchasing power. About two-thirds of Bolivian industry located in or near La Paz; much is located in the Cochabamba area. There is serious competition from importers of Brazilian, Argentine, and Peruvian manufactured goods, as well as from smuggled goods; the latter are mainly consumer goods from neighboring countries and the United States of America which can be sold cheaply because they avoid tariffs. Bolivia has abundant energy sources, especially hydroelectric potential, but per capita consumption remains low. The National Electric Company (Empresa Nacional de Electricidad) mainly supplies large cities and mines. Hydroelectric power plants serve La Paz, Cochabamba, and Oruro, the largest plant in Corani , in the Cochabamba area.

Santa Cruz, Sucre, Tarija, and Trinidad are powered by thermal power from oil. Small generators, public and private, supply more isolated centers in the East.

Tourism does not yet contribute very much to the economy, but provides support for increasing its own capacity and improving hotel conditions, especially at La Paz. At the end of the 20th century, Bolivia was added to the increasingly popular Grand Tour of South America, a tour of continental attractions , which attracts guests from the United States, Europe, and Japan. The main interest centers on Lake Titicaca and its surroundings: the ruins of ancient Inca buildings on the Island of the Sun, pre-Inca ruins at Tiahuanaco, fishing in the lake, Indian life on the Altiplano, and the town of La Paz itself. The side trip through the Royal Cordillera and down into the Yungas jungle closest to La Paz is exhilarating and popular, providing within a few hours the most extraordinary views and climatic contrasts in the Andes.

Trade.

Exports of metals (mainly tin, but also including zinc, silver, and tungsten) have traditionally dominated Bolivia's trade. With the collapse of the world tin market in the 1980s, natural gas became an export; Minerals and natural gas together account for more than 80 percent of Bolivia's legal export trade. Agricultural exports include coffee, sugar, and timber, along with small quantities of wild rubber, Brazil nuts, hides and skins. Industrial products account for the largest portion of all imports; machinery and equipment for industry and transport are among the main categories. Raw materials, consumer goods, and food products are other important import categories. The largest trading partners are Argentina and the United States, but significant trade also occurs with other South American countries, Great Britain, West Germany, and Japan.

The illegal cocaine trade has become a significant element in the Bolivian economy. The leaves of the local coca bush have been chewed by Andean Indians for centuries for relief from the cold and for pleasure. Small quantities of coca (from Quechua kuka) were also legally exported for many years for medicinal purposes. An unprecedented expansion of coca cultivation in the Yungas, and especially in the Chapare region (northeast of Cochabamba) began in the 1960s with the sudden growth of the illicit international cocaine market. Because of need As cocaine grew in North America and Europe in the 1970s and 1980s, Bolivian farmers soon discovered that no other crop could compete with coca's profitability. It has become an ideal cash-generating product that is easy to grow, valuable, sustainable, and easily transported as dried leaves or concentrate ready for smuggling out of the country from airstrips scattered throughout the East. At the end of the 20th century, it was estimated that one third of the world's cocava crop grows in Bolivia, and one quarter in the Chapare region alone. Government attempts to replace the crop or to get farmers to voluntarily reduce their coca acreage were unsuccessful. Indeed, coca acreage continued to increase continuously. By the 1980s, quantities of cocaine estimated at $5,000,000,000 were leaving Bolivia annually from centers around Cochabamba and outlying parts of the East. Despite Due to its illegal nature, the transportation of the drug provided a huge addition to the country's gross national product. Due to the large profits generated by the government and farmers, and the untold enrichment of illegal dealers, the cocaine trade has become almost impossible to suppress.

Transport.

Bolivia's development was hampered by its inland location and the difficulties of the interior geography of steep mountains and seasonal flooding in the valleys. The main railway system, in the west, was built mainly between the 1890s and 1920s and links the main cities and mines of the Andes with the Pacific ports of Antofagasta (Chile) and Arique (Chile) and Matarani (Peru). The most recent line is connected to Lake Titicaca. Isolated from this rail network, Santa Cruz, forming the core of the eastern system, was connected by rail to Corumba (Brazil) and to Argentina during the 1950s. However, these the lines did not carry much load.

Rail transport has developed rapidly in the highlands of Bolivia and around Santa Cruz since the mid-1950s, and paved highways link La Paz with Oruro, Cochabamba with Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz with Montero, and other important centers around the Santa Cruz region. PAN AMERICAN Highways roads cross the highlands as far as Bolivia between Peru and Argentina, and buses and trucks travel on unpaved roads, linking a large number of Andean cities. Travel is slow and often dangerous. Paths are used in parts of Oriente after floods have subsided; There is no road network here. A huge river system covers the entire plain in large loops, but local traffic is limited. Only in the northern rain forests are small river boats used as local transport.

Air Transport is the only rapid connection between the main cities of Bolivia and the primary means of communication between the isolated settlements of Oriente and the rest of the country. The national airline Lloyd Aereo Boliviano (LAB) was founded by a small group of German businessmen in 1925, and in the second half of the 20th century it played an important political role in exploring the valleys and eastern borders of the region of Bolivian territory. Newspapers and information are quickly distributed by air services, keeping people far from the center constantly informed of national affairs. LAB operates international routes to South American capitals, as well as other cities such as Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Manaus (Brazil), Panama City, and Miami.

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Government.

Bolivia was declared independent in 1825 and its first constitution was adopted in 1826. Despite revisions and numerous coups, the state maintained a unitary system of government. Regardless of whether the government was elected or introduced by a military dictatorship, throughout the history of Bolivia it maintained power over the country .Under the terms of the 1947 constitution, the executive power is vested in the president, who is elected by direct vote of the entire population of the country for a term of 4 years. If no candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes, the National Congress must choose the president from the three leading contenders. There cannot be an immediate presidency re-elected. The bicameral legislature consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, whose members are elected by the people for four-year terms. The law enforcement system is headed by a Supreme Court of 12 members who are appointed by Congress for 10-year terms. The country is divided into nine regions, each headed by a prefect appointed by the Bolivian President. The departments are divided into provinces governed by subprefects, and the provinces are divided into cantons governed by corregidors. After the National Revolution of 1952, universal suffrage was introduced and all men and women received the right to vote for the first time in the history of Bolivia. Before this, only literate and wealthy people had the right to vote , which greatly limited the number of voters. The country's political system is highly fragmented into a large number of political parties from the far right conservative to the radical left.

Education, health and well-being.

Primary education from ages six to 14 is free and officially compulsory for all, although the latter is difficult to achieve in some areas. Secondary education, lasting four years, is optional. At the end of the 20th century, about four-fifths of children under 14 attended school, and only one quarter of children after fourteen years of age do so. Education is mainly administered and provided by the state. But private universities are allowed. Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish organizations are actively involved in primary and secondary education. Adult literacy standards are growing before our eyes since the 1950s. In the 1960s, about three quarters of the population was semi-literate. But by the 1980s this figure had fallen to one third. Higher education is provided at 8 senior national public universities (housed in the capitals of each department except Pando). There are also technical universities and Roman Catholic University. The largest university is the University of SAN ANDRE, located in La Paz. The University Library and the National Library of Congress have excellent collections.

Medical service.

There are three types of public health care provided by the Ministry of Public Health and Social Security, then the Social Security system, which serves only its members, and private clinics. In general, medical care and hospitals in cities are at a fairly good level. However, this is different in rural areas where there are not enough doctors and nurses. Travel health workers provide primary health care and advice on hygiene and nutrition in colonized areas. However, some major problems remain. Contagious diseases such as malaria and CAGA are still prevalent in Oriente, and respiratory diseases are still widespread. Poor nutrition remains a problem in some areas.

CULTURAL LIFE

Cultural traditions.

Bolivian culture consists of a mixture of Indian culture with the culture of the Mediterranean brought by the Spaniards. On religious holidays, for example, pagan pre-Columbian rituals are still practiced. Indians express their feelings with dances and songs that combine the two cultures. During the festivals, the symbolic outfits of the Indians represent an interpretation of European The palla-palla or loco palla-palla dance is a caricature of European invaders, the waka tokoris dance parodies a bullfight, and the morenada satirizes the white people who import African slaves. These dances usually accompany Indian musical documents. In the music itself, a mixture of cultures is also evident , as many of the tunes are based on Spanish dances. The most commonly used instruments are sicu or zampona (pipe) and kena, tarka and pinkilla (upright flutes). Wind instruments of various sizes are used, including leather drums, bronze gongs, and brass bells. Costumes, Richly embroidered and multi-colored, they imitate the attire of pre-Columbian Indians or the clothing of the 16th century Spaniards. The Spanish influence of Spain is clearly visible in the example of the charango, a stringed instrument specific to Bolivia. It has five double strings and a shape similar to a guitar, although much smaller. the body is made from armadillo shell.

Traditional clothing

Daily clothing of Indian women from the highlands. remains traditional in both urban and rural areas: wide, loose skirts (polleras) and colorful shawls. The latter are usually filled with goods for sale, as well as new purchases, additional clothing. The child is also placed there and everything is carefully tied to the back, leaving both hands free . Hats always complement the costume, their shapes vary in the regions of Bolivia.

Beginning in the 1940s, Indian culture flourished. Previously, Indians tried to imitate Europeans, both in customs and dress. But in the early 1970s, Indian values ​​were restored; Indian music rose to a higher level, artists abandoned the imitation of European European styles and some features of Indian culture reappeared in the general lifestyle. The Academy of the Aymara Language in La Paz deals with the problems of preserving the purity of the Aymara language.

Continuation
--PAGE_BREAK-- Arts.

The National Academy of Fine Arts in La Paz offers courses in music, painting, sculpture, and ceramics. There are two painting galleries and permanent collections in the National Museum of Art and the National Museum of Archeology (Museo Tiahuanaco). Jewelry made of silver and gold, in a pre-Columbian style of decoration, was made during colonial times. Local markets offer an abundance of colorful handicrafts and wonderful wood carvings.

In the town of Potosi, the impressive Royal Mint (Casa Real de Moneda), founded in the 16th century and rebuilt in the 18th century, has been restored and large halls are used for a permanent collection of fine colonial paintings. Various old temples have also been restored. La Paz has the National Symphony Orchestra, and the University of San Andres choir specializes in Native American music.

REST.

Folk festivals are held periodically, the most important of which takes place in Oruro during the Carnival festivities. Many Indian music and dance groups compete here, providing a magnificent spectacle of costumes and scenery. Football (soccer) is the national sport and the Bolivian national team competes in international matches. A large number of other sporting spectacles typical of the West can be seen in large cities, including bullfights.

Press and radio and television.

Bolivia has an active and constitutionally liberated press, which was subject to periodic censorship during dictatorial regimes. Each of the regional capitals (except Cobija and Pando) has at least one daily newspaper. El Diario (oldest), Presencia (Roman Catholic), Hoy and Ultima Hora, in La Paz, have the largest distribution in the country. Sucras Daily and Coerreo del Sud were founded only at the end of the 20th century. Radio stations are widespread in Bolivia, many of them commercial, broadcasting in Aymara and Quechua. The state-owned National Television Company (Empresa Nacional de Telivision) covers national and world events , sports, arts, documentaries, and entertainment programs, has its stations in most major cities. The University Television Service (Television Universi-taria) also presents educational programs. In the 1980s, however, the majority of Bolivians still did not have their own television installations. The percentage of viewers in cities is, of course, much higher than in rural areas, since televisions are found there not only in homes but also in public and commercial establishments.

Story.

Early period.

Bolivian society traces its origins to the advanced pre-Columbian civilizations of South America. The high Bolivian plateau known as the Altiplano was already densely populated several centuries before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.

Since the 7th century, the Tiahuanaco Empire, the first of the great Andean empires, stretching along the Peruvian coast and highlands, had its center in the Altiplano. By the 11th century it had reached its zenith and was divided into smaller states.

In the centuries that followed the collapse of the Tiahua-naco, the Bolivian highland region maintained a dense population and a high level of technological development with agricultural irrigation and rigation. By the 15th century, the region was primarily controlled by twelve Aymara-speaking Indian nations. Rivaling the Quechua-speaking nations of Cuzco, which is now Peruvian territory, these Aymara tribes battled the Quechua for power in the central Andean highland region. Although nations The Aymara were eventually supplanted by the Cuzco; they nevertheless remained the most important group other than the Quechuan within the expanding Inca Empire; Their importance lay in the fact that they were the only conquered coastal people who managed to preserve the originality of their language and culture to such an extent that their Aymara language survived Spanish rule. But the Aymara were forced as a result of the colonial policy of the Incas to accept a large number of emigrants into their midst speaking the Quechua language. This was an early example of colonization without assimilation, which gave Bolivia its true linguistic and cultural identity (In Bolivia today the 2 main Indian languages ​​are Quechua and Aymara).

The valleys of the southern Andes and the central plateau in Bolivia, with their dense Indian population, became the core of the entire conquered Spanish Empire after the conquest. To the wealth brought by the labor of the Indians, mineral wealth was added with the discovery in 1545 of silver deposits in Potosi, the largest silver copies, from then known in the Western world. The barren highland mines of Potosi, along with others opened in the nearby city of Oruro (founded 1606), were supplied with food and other necessities from Chuquisaca (founded 1538), La Paz (founded 1548), and Cochabamba (founded 1571). From the 16th to the 18th century, this region of the southern Andeans, then known as Charcas, or Upper Peru, was one of the richest and most densely populated centers of the American part of the Spanish Empire. The mines of this area were supplied by the forced labor of Indians from all over the Andes; and by the mid-17th century this mining hub of Potosi was the largest city in America with a population of 150 thousand people.

By the last quarter of the 18th century, these famous mines had fallen into disrepair. The depletion of the richest and most accessible silver veins, the poverty of the miners and their ignorance of new technologies, and the involvement of the colonial capital in the booming international trade of the late 18th century all this contributed to its decline. Although Potosi continued to be the most important economic center of upper Peru, the intellectual and political center of the region was Chuquisaca (also known in the colonial period as Charcas and La Plata and, since independence, as Sucre). With its academies and university, Chuquisaca was the main educational center for the entire Rio de la Plata region; it also served as the seat of the government of upper Peru, which was known from its founding in 1559 under the name "Audiencia Charcas". The Audiencia was initially located among the Viceroyalty of Peru in Lima, but in 1776 it was finally moved to the new Viceroyalty established in Buenos Aires.

In the late 1770s and early 1780s, abuses by minor officials sparked Indian uprisings in hopes of restoring the old Inca Empire. Serious unrest was widespread in the highlands and caused a large number of accidents; La Paz was besieged twice within a few months. Ultimately, the Indian leaders were defeated and executed.

In 1809, Chuquisaca and La Paz became two of the very first cities in Spanish America to rebel against the Spanish authorities appointed by the new Napoleonic ruler of Spain. Authorities often view these actions as the beginning of the wars of independence in Latin America.

Although the viceroyalty in Lima were able to suppress the uprisings, similar uprisings were successful in the viceroyal capital of Buenos Aires. Several revolutionary armies were sent from this city to liberate Upper Peru. They were not successful, however, guerrilla units formed in the countryside after the events in 1809 continued revolutionary activities in Upper Peru for another 16 years. In 1825, the Bolivian army from the north, under the leadership of Marshal Antonio Jose de Sucre, liberated Upper Peru. The military victory was facilitated by the constant desertion of Upper Peru's royalists. It was mainly local elites and deserters who convinced Simon Bolivar and Sucre to allow Upper Peru to become independent, rather than annex to either Peru or Argentina. On August 6, 1825, the Congress of Upper Peru declared Bolivia independent. Few of the guerrilla commanders, representing the poorer sections of the electorate, were able to take part in the rule of the new regime, controlled mainly by the elite.

BOLIVIA FROM 1825 TO 1930.

In appreciation of Bolívar's support, congressional leaders named the new republic of Bolivia after its founder and invited Sucre, his chief lieutenant, to be its first president.

Basic and early national period.

However, the new republic was not as viable as its people had fervently hoped. It was economically backward despite the region's legendary colonial wealth and prime location. In the late 18th century, the decline of the mining industry led to a severe depression as a result of the Revolutionary Wars. Between 1803 and 1825, silver production in Potosi fell by more than 80 percent; and by the time of the first national census in 1846, the Republic numbered more than 10,000 closed mines.

Unable to export silver at the level of previous colonial production, Bolivia quickly lost its former position as the leading economic power in Spanish America. Already by the end of the colonial period, such extreme regions as Rio de la Plata and Chile were far ahead in the production of cereals and meat. On the other hand, Bolivia was an importer of staple products, mainly those consumed by the Indian population and none of its the mineral resources were not valuable enough to cover the high costs of transporting them to the coast. The Bolivian Republic, with a small volume of trade that yielded no profit from tax revenues, and with few resources to export other than the very modest production of its precious metals, was forced to rely on direct taxation on the mass of Indian villagers, who constituted more than two-thirds of the total population, numbering 1 million 100 thousand in 1825. Until the very last quarter of the 19th century, this regressive taxation of Indians was a large source of income for the national government. Compared with the more progressive South -By American states relying almost exclusively on import and export taxes in ever-expanding international trade, the Bolivian state quickly lost its prominent position within the continent and became known as one of the newest republics.

This economic decline was a reflection of political stagnation. Bolivia's prominence began to rise first with a series of military dictators, among them Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz, president from 1829 to 1839. Gradually transforming the war-torn Bolivian economy and financial situation, Santa Cruz was able to unite Bolivia with Peru in the 1830s, successfully throwing Lima regime of local dictator General Agustin Gamarra. The union of Bolivia with Peru is known as the CONFEDERATION (from 1836 to 1839). But Chilean military intervention ruined the CONFEDERATION attempt; Bolivia quickly found itself alone and from that time on abandoned all attempts at international expansion.

Bolivia's efforts over the next half century were aimed primarily at unifying its outlying regions, a negotiated relationship between the core of the Altiplano Republic and the eastern Andean valleys. This attempt was doomed to failure because Bolivia lacked the population and resources to exploit the rich opportunities of the Amazon or the Pacific coast. . Despite the enormous wealth of nitrates and guano available on the Pacific Coast, the nation was unable to exploit it even with the help of foreign capital. What little capital was at the disposal of Bolivia's upper class was invested in the Altiplano mines, so Bolivian resources were exploited by Peruvians, Chileans, Northern Americans and British. Between the Chilean Confederate War (1838-39) and the outbreak of the War of the Pacific (1879), Chile successfully expanded its claims, through both diplomatic pressure and, finally, military action against Bolivian sovereignty in vast areas of the Bolivian Pacific coast.

Loss of coastal zone.

The War of the Pacific (1879-84) traces its origins to large Anglo-Chilean investments in Bolivia beginning in the 1840s, when investments were made in the guano deposits of the Bolivian coastal province of Atacama. With the discovery of nitrate deposits in the 1860s, Chilean aggressive expansion into the coast spread even further. Through a series of treaties, Chile expanded its territorial claims and achieved commercial concessions on Bolivian territory. In response to this pressure, Bolivia signed a joint treaty with Peru in 1873; but this did not intimidate the Chileans. When the Bolivian government tried to increase the tax on Chilean nitrate mining companies in Bolivia, Chile unilaterally seized Bolivian territory in 1879 and brought Bolivia and Peru to war. In May 1880, at the Battle of Tacna, Chile defeated a combined Bolivian-Peruvian army, thereby ending effective Bolivian resistance. Rather, rather than attack Bolivia's Andean core, the Chileans ignored Bolivia for the rest of the war and staged a massive invasion of Peru that resulted in the capture of Lima.

The retreat of the Pacific coast to Chile was in many ways perhaps a blessing for Bolivia. The Pacific War marked a major turning point in the nation's history. From the fall of the Confederacy to the Pacific War, Bolivia went through some of the worst periods of dictatorial rule in all of Latin America in the 19th century. The decades of the 1860s and '70s, however, saw the Andean mining industry revive with new capital investments from Chile and Great Britain. By the time of the Pacific War, international silver market conditions and the introduction of new technology and capital had greatly revitalized the national mining industry. The Pacific War allowed new mining entrepreneurs to seize political control of the nation.

FORMATION OF THE LIBERAL AND CONSERVATIVE PARTIES.

Beginning in 1880, under the presidency of Narciso Campero (1880-1884), Bolivia entered an era of civilian government with a national upper class divided into liberal and conservative parties, which began to share power among themselves.

This political system of intra-class parties finally brought Bolivia the stability it needed for economic development. Although the parties were divided in their views, they were united in their desire to bring about economic development. From 1880 to 1899, the nation was ruled by Conservatives whose main function was to encourage mining through the development of an international railway network.

When the liberals seized power from the conservatives in the so-called Federal Revolution of 1899, they inherited an already economically developed nation. The Federal Revolution, although it involved a struggle for the permanent location of national institutions in the cities of Sucre or La Paz, was in fact and above all a struggle for power between the Conservative and Liberal parties. Unfortunately for the Conservatives, their strength was also closely tied to the traditional Chuquisaca elite, most of whom had common interests with the silver mining industry. The liberals mainly relied on La Paz, which by this time was 3 times larger than Sucre and was the most populous city (72 thousand out of 1,700,000 population in 1900%

DEVELOPMENT OF TIN MINING.

The Liberals' victory was also closely linked to a major change in the mining economy. As the world silver market began to collapse in the 1880s and early 1890s, a major turnaround in tin mining began in the Bolian Altiplano. Discovered in connection with silver, tin did not become an important product until the late 19 19th century, when the demand for tin suddenly jumped in all major industrial countries. Therefore, by 1900, tin had completely replaced silver as Bolivia's main export, accounting for more than 50% of national exports. The turnaround in tin mining not only occurred simultaneously with the liberal uprisings and was closely associated with the new party, but it also led to fundamental changes within Bolivia's capitalist class. While the elite associated with silver mining was almost exclusively Bolivian, the new tin producers were much more cosmopolitan, including in the early years foreigners of all nationalities as well as new Bolivian entrepreneurs. Tin mining itself was absorbing much more capital and generated much more income than the old silver mining industry. The new companies that emerged became more developed international enterprises, managed by professional managers.

Having thus brought a new, sophisticated economy and political stability already achieved under the Conservatives and continued by the Liberals, the tin-mining elite found it advantageous to renounce direct involvement in national political life. While Bolivian presidents under conservative rule in the 19th century were either themselves silver magnates (Gregorio Pacheco, 1884-88; Aniceto Arce, 1888-92) or were closely associated with such magnates as their partners or assistants (Mariano Baptista, 1892-1896; Severo Fernandez Alonso, 1896-99), liberals and subsequent 20th century presidents were outside the mining elite. No tin magnate took an active part in leadership positions within the political system. Instead, they relied on a more effective system of pressure on political factions.

Liberal rule (1899-1920)

The primary task for the liberal politicians, who governed Bolivia from 1899 to 1920 under the leadership of Ismael Montes (twice president from 1904-08 and 1913-17), was to resolve Bolivia's chronic border problems and to continue and expand the network of communications begun by the conservatives. From Chile, in 1904 A lasting peace treaty was signed recognizing the loss of all former Bolivian territories.

The problems of Acre were also resolved: the central government made an unsuccessful attempt to crush local uprisings (1889-1903) in the rubber-boom territory of Acre on the Brazilian border. The secret support of the rebels by the Brazilians and the defeat of the Bolivian army finally convinced the liberals to sell this territory to Brazil under the Petropolis Treaty (1903). As a result of the financial compensation provided by the two treaties, Bolivia was able to finance the great era of railway construction by 1920, most of the major cities were connected by rail, and La Paz was connected to two Chilean ports, the Pacific ports of Antota-gasta and Arica; new lines were started and brought to Lake Titicaca and thus to the Peruvian border, as well as to Tarija and, accordingly, the Argentine border.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site were used www.ef.wwww4.com/

Flag of Bolivia Coat of Arms of Bolivia Plurinational State of Bolivia is a state in the central part of South America. August 6, 1825 (from Spain) Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, Guarani and 33 other languages. It is landlocked, but in 1992 an agreement was signed with Peru to lease a small coastal area for 99 years for the construction of a port. The Plurinational State of Bolivia is a country in central South America. Date of independence - August 6, 1825 (from Spain) Official languages ​​Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, Guarani and 33 other languages. It is landlocked, but in 1992 an agreement was signed with Peru to lease a small coastal area for 99 years for the construction of a port.

State structure Republic. The head of state and government is the president, elected by the population for one 5-year term. Since January 22, 2006 Juan Evo Morales. The president heads the government, approves the composition of the cabinet of ministers, and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The bicameral parliament has 36 senators and 130 deputies, elected for a 5-year term. 80th President of Bolivia - Juan Evo Morales

Geographical data The area of ​​Bolivia is km². It ranks 27th in the list of countries by area after Ethiopia. The total length of the border is 6743 km (the length of the borders with Argentina is 832 km, with Brazil 3400 km, with Chile 861 km, with Paraguay 750 km, with Peru 900 km). The highest point is the extinct volcano Sajama (6542 m), located in the department of Oruro. Bolivia has been landlocked since 1879, when it lost the coastal region of Antofagasta in the War of the Pacific with Chile. However, Bolivia has access to the Atlantic Ocean via the Paraguay River. Sahama volcano

Geographical data Bolivia is bordered to the north and northeast by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, and to the southwest and west by Chile and Peru. Bolivia is bordered to the north and northeast by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, and to the southwest and west by Chile and Peru.

Bolivia has a huge variety of ecological zones. The country's western highlands are located in the Andes, including the Altiplano plateau. The eastern low plains include large areas of the Amazon rainforest and the Chaco. Lake Titicaca is located on the border of Bolivia and Peru. The world's largest salt marsh, Uyuni, is located in the southwestern part of the country. The largest cities in Bolivia are La Paz, El Alto, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.

Climate Tropical and subequatorial. Average monthly temperatures range from +3 C to +21 C depending on the altitude. Precipitation ranges from 150 to 2000 mm. per year, the rainy season lasts from November to March. Due to its proximity to the equator, the seasons are poorly defined. The difference between summer and winter temperatures is less than 10 C. The lowest temperatures are recorded in the Andean zone (can reach a level of - 20 C). At the foot of the Eastern (Royal) Cordillera stretch the Eastern Plains (up to 60% of the territory) with a tropical climate, the average annual temperature here is at C.

Amazon Forests There is currently heated debate about the construction of a highway in the Amazon forests in the departments of Cochabamba and Beni. A number of tribes are actively protesting against the construction. Environmentalists are also against the project, arguing that the project could lead to the disappearance of a significant part of the local flora and fauna and, in particular, threatens the existence of the unique Isiboro National Park

Population (2010) people. The only country in Latin America where the majority of the population, 55%, are Quechua and Aymara Indians; Mestizos (30%) and Creoles (descendants of the Spaniards) also live. Urban population 61%. Population density 7.8 people/km2.

Economy The basis of Bolivia's economy is the export-oriented mining industry. GNP per capita. $800 (1995). Bolivia occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of tin ores (1/2 of production and 2/3 of exports in Latin America), antimony, and tungsten. Zinc, lead, copper, bismuth, silver, gold, oil and natural gas are also mined.

2/3 of the value of agricultural products comes from agriculture. Cattle breeding is predominantly pasture. In addition to cattle, sheep and pigs, llamas are bred. In the forests, timber harvesting, collection of hevea juice, cinchona bark; sowing of narcotic crops (according to international organizations, 50% of the country’s economy comes from the drug business).