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Language lives together with the life of the people V. G. Belinsky Language is changeable, just as life itself is changeable. S.Ya. Marshak. And indeed, like any other language, the Russian language develops in the process of social development: - the vocabulary is enriched, - the morphological norms of the language change, - new syntactic constructions appear, - new norms of pronunciation and spelling of words are consolidated.

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The birth date of Russian writing is considered to be 863. This is the year when the Slavic educator Kirill created the first Russian alphabet, it was called Cyrillic. Over its long history, Russian writing has undergone only 2 reforms. The author of the first reform was Peter the Great, who removed from the Russian alphabet those not necessary for Russian writing. In addition, he changed the outline of Russian letters, making them similar to the outlines of Latin letters. This alphabet began to be called a citizen, or citizen, because it was used for secular documents and secular correspondence. The second reform of the Russian language took place in 1917-1918. By this time, a lot of unnecessary, superfluous things had already accumulated in the Russian alphabet. But the most important drawback was still the extra letters. Thus, language is a historically developing phenomenon.

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Historical changes in vocabulary Changes occurring in a language are most clearly revealed in its lexical composition, since it is vocabulary that most quickly responds to changes in social life. These, of course, include political events, the development of science and technology, and the expansion of economic and political ties with other nations. As a result of the influence of these factors, some words become obsolete and fall out of active use. And other words, on the contrary, appear as part of the language along with those objects and phenomena that appear in our lives. Neologisms (Greek Neos - new + logos - concept, word) are words that appear in the language to denote new concepts. Reasons: Changes in the social order Development of science and technology

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Historicisms are words denoting objects and phenomena that have passed into the past. For example: plow, quiver, armyak, kick, stagecoach, horse-drawn horse, state councilor, committee of the poor, reading hut, commissar. Historical changes in vocabulary

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Historical changes in vocabulary Archaisms - (Greek Archaios - ancient) outdated words replaced by more modern ones. For example: mouth, finger, neck, hand, right hand, shuytsa, warrior, youth, zelo, drink. .

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Sometimes words have new meanings and old ones die off. For example: vile - 1) until the 18th century. “common, unborn, belonging to the lower class”; 2) modern “dishonest, morally low.” Historical changes in vocabulary

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Changes in Grammar The grammatical categories of a language also change, although not as quickly. For example: a noun in Old Russian had three number forms, six types of declension, seven cases; verb – eight tenses and several impersonal forms (participle, infinitive, supin).

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Changes in the grammar of Unity. number of Dual. number of Sets. number of the year godi horse horse horses son sons son share shares shares fish fish fish

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For example, it turned out that in the Russian language there was no sound [f] or letter F. It turns out that all words starting with the letter F are borrowed. The sound [f] appeared in our phonetic system only in the 12th - 13th centuries as a result of the process of deafening in words such as lavka[lavka], rov[rof], etc. Fluctuations are also observed in the pronunciation of words in the Russian language. So, in 1955 it was the norm to pronounce the word foil, now we pronounce it foil. And in September 2009, the double version of the pronunciation of the words yogurt and yogurt, agreement and agreement became the norm.

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Changes also occur in the grammatical structure of the language. If we open Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”, we can read: “he goes to bed from the ball.” So, was our writer mistaken? Of course not. The fact is that in the 19th century there was no word for bed, but a noun of the 1st declension - bed. In the same 19th century there was a choice. You could say “I’m going to a masquerade” and “I’m going to a masquerade”; “I play in the theater” and “I play in the theater.” And now there is only one option left for combining these words - “I’m going to a masquerade,” “I’m playing in the theater.”

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Features of language development There is one feature that is always inherent in key language changes. Regardless of other factors, the development of language is characterized by a tendency towards its preservation in a state of communicative suitability. This often leads to the fact that language, as a system, develops unevenly, and different areas its systems (Vocabulary, Phonetics) have different rates of transformation. But in this case, the language needs to be changed, since only in this way can it be suitable for communication between people. This suggests that language variability is both causes, conditions, and the result of speech activity. Therefore, language is defined as integral unity both stable and mobile, since it can exist stably only when it is in constant development.

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Lesson 1. Russian language How developing phenomenon

Goals: briefly introduce students to the 7th grade program, with a textbook; give the concept of Russian as a developing languagephenomenon; create an emotional mood that promotes growthdeveloping interest in the Russian language and its study.

Methodical techniques: lecture with elements of conversation, work with a dictionary, working with a geographical map.

During the classes

I. Organizing time

Congratulations on the beginning of the school year, roll call; acquaintancewith the general structure of the 7th grade course: 5 lessons per week.

II. Introduction to the textbook

1. The teacher's word.

In 7th grade we will continue to study a big topic - "Morphology and Spelling". It is important for us to trace how the connectionWe know the parts of speech, their grammatical features and spelling. In 6th grade we talked about the main independent parts speech.
- What parts of speech are these? (noun, adjective noun, numeral, pronoun, verb.)
For lessons, we first need a textbook. Let's turn the pageshis pages. Let's pay attention to the endpapers, to the symbols
meanings s. 2, to the table of contents: let’s quickly determine what lies aheadstudy in a year. Let us especially focus on applications in which
here are some tips: how to do it different kinds linguisticanalysis of how to correctly write and pronounce words (dictionaries).
2. Introductory conversation.

What surnames in the “Conditional Abbreviations” application do you need? familiar, which ones did you meet for the first time?

3. Anticipatory task.

Try to determine the name when doing the exercisesof the works from which this or that example was taken: some Some are probably known to you.

(Possible encouragement: for several correct answers - xo good rating).

III . Lecture with elements of conversation

You can see the topic of our first lesson on the board. Write it down in a notebook.

Everything in nature is constantly evolving, be it a living organismor a dead-looking stone. Another thing is how quicklychanges are coming. The changes that occur, for example, with dandelion, can be monitored over several weeks:green sprouts will give rise to yellow flowers almost before your eyes, whichwill soon turn into a light balloon consisting of whitetiny umbrellas that will leave the stem one by onealong with the wind. But it is impossible to trace the life of a stone throughout human life, although it changes, only very slowly, from our point of view.

As a person develops, his relationships with the world develop,with the people around him. Language is also a living, developingphenomenon. It forms, lives and can even die like thishappened to ancient Greek and Latin. They are calleddead, or classic. But just like nothing in nature disappearswithout a trace, so traces of ancient languages ​​are preserved in existing languagesexisting Many quite modern words conceal ancient Greek and Latin roots: tape recorder, TV, mobile phone, floppy disk, processor...

All these words are Russian, we use them in everyday life.speeches, but they are borrowed in origin. Russian OS languagetook foreign language roots, adapted them to his phonetics, designed them according tothe laws of your grammar. Until recently, such words as mobile phone,computer, disk drive, Internet, etc., were not in Russian.

-What are the new words called? (Neologisms.)

-What does this word mean? From what language did it come to Russian?(The word "neologism" is Greek in origin and includescontains two roots: “neo” - new”, “logos” - word.)

-Give examples of other Russian words with these roots.Find the meaning of these words in explanatory dictionary. (Neon, no olith; logic, speech therapist, philology, etc.) "

Neon -chemical element, gas that is part of air;used for filling light bulbs, in the signallighting, advertising, etc. lighting devices.

Neolithic -new stone age, later stone age century.

Logic -1) The science of laws and forms of thinking. 2) Move the raceexpectations, conclusions. 3) Internal regularity.

Speech therapist- a specialist who studies speech deficiencies and methods their treatment.

Philology -a set of humanities that studywritten monuments, texts that can be used to describe cultural culture of the people.

- Why do you think neologisms appear? (Discuss den.)

New phenomena, new objects are formed, the need arisesthe need to identify and name these new concepts.

New words often have difficulty taking root in the language; they have nolo opponents. For example, the familiar and necessary word for us“champion” was received with hostility by A.P. Chekhov: it cuthis hearing. Once upon a time the words “industry” and “society” wereneologisms. They were introduced into the Russian language by N.M. Karamzin. It's still earlyMore recently, the words “compass”, “harbour”, “sailor” entered the Russian language. TheseDutch words were needed to denote new concepts under Peter I , which made Russia a maritime power.

Sometimes familiar words take on new meaning. So happened, for example, with the word “satellite”.

- What does "satellite" mean? (Spacecraft.)
Its original meaning is the one who makes the journey, travels

or goes with someone.

A new meaning arose in the middle XX century in connection with the exploration of outer space, the development space technology. Exactlyin this meaning the word “satellite” was adopted by other languages ​​of the world.

Life changes, which means that concepts that existed before disappear. Does everyone know what a horse-drawn horse is? What is yam? What means educational program?

So, society develops, culture, science, technology develops Nika - language develops.

As language develops, it gradually changes, and in these changesEach Russian speaker participates. Therefore from it depends on us what ours will be native language. IV. Working with the textbook

1. Doing exercise 1.

Note. It is advisable to show the distribution areas on the map.wanderings Slavic languages. Note that in the Lusatian languagesays a small group of Lusatians - Slavs living on territory of Germany.

2. Perform exercises 2 and 5 (orally).

Homework

2. Exercises 3, 4.

Task option: prepare small message"Live howl like life” (exercise 6).

Download material

See the downloadable file for the full text of the material.
The page contains only a fragment of the material.

Any language is a developing, not a dead, forever frozen phenomenon. According to N.V. Gogol, “our extraordinary language is still a mystery... it is limitless and can, living like life, be enriched every minute.” During the lesson you will learn about the factors that influence changes in language, and use examples to see the fluidity of the lexical, grammatical and phonetic structure of the language. You will also get acquainted with the history of the creation of the Russian alphabet.

Topic: Introduction

Lesson: Russian language as a developing phenomenon

Rice. 1. Belinsky V. G.

Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky said: “Language lives together with the life of the people.” And indeed, like any other language, the Russian language develops in the process of social development:

Enriched lexicon,

The morphological norms of the language change,

New syntactic constructions appear,

New norms for pronunciation and spelling of words are being established.

The changes occurring in a language are most clearly revealed in its lexical composition, since it is the vocabulary that most quickly responds to changes in social life.

These, of course, include political events, the development of science and technology, and the expansion of economic and political ties with other nations. As a result of the influence of these factors, some words become obsolete and fall out of active use. This, for example, happened with the words kitschka, socialite,camisole and many more etc. And other words, on the contrary, appear as part of the language along with those objects and phenomena that appear in our lives. So, for example, relatively recently we have the words rating, programmer, summit etc.

Expansion of the lexical composition of a language can also occur through the use of reinterpreted words and expressions in speech. So, for example, in the 19th century the word matinee had only one meaning. In Dahl's dictionary we read: matinee is a spring or autumn night frost. And now, in the 21st century, this word has acquired a second meaning. A matinee is a morning children's performance, a holiday. Compare: Spring mornings are harmful to plants.- At the children's matinee, the children read their poems.

Outdated words may also come back into active use. So, for example, now we are again using previously outdated words governor, thought and etc.

Changes in the grammatical and phonetic structure of the language occur much more slowly than in vocabulary. They are discovered by linguistic scientists by comparing texts written in different periods existence of language. For example, it turned out that in Russian the sound [f] and letters F did not have. It turns out that all words starting with the letter F , borrowed. Sound [f] appeared in our phonetic system only in the 12th - 13th centuries as a result of the process of deafening in words such as shop[Lafka], rov[rof] and etc.

There are also fluctuations in the pronunciation of Russian words. So, in 1955 it was the norm to pronounce the word f ABOUT lie, now we pronounce - foils A . And in September 2009 it became the norm double option pronunciation of words th ABOUT edge And yogi U rt, d ABOUT talk And Great Danes ABOUT R.

Changes also occur in the grammatical structure of the language. If we open Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”, we can read: “He’s leaving the ball in bed.” So, was our writer mistaken? Of course not. The fact is that in the 19th century words bed there was no, but a noun of the 1st declension was used - bed.

In the same 19th century there was a choice. It was possible to talk "I'm going to a masquerade ball" And "I'm going to the masquerade"; « AndI act in the theater" and "I play in the theater." And now there is only one option left for combining these words - “I’m going to a masquerade,” “I’m playing in the theater.”

The birth date of Russian writing is considered to be 863. This is the year when the Slavic educator Kirill created the first Russian alphabet, it was called Cyrillic.

Over its long history Russian letter underwent only 2 reforms.

The author of the first reform was Peter the Great, which removed from the Russian alphabet those not necessary for Russian writing, but written according to tradition greek letters- “zelo”, “omega”, “psi”, “xi”. In addition, he changed the outline of Russian letters, making them similar to the outlines of Latin letters. This alphabet began to be called citizen, or citizen, because it was used for secular documents and secular correspondence.

The second reform of the Russian language took place in19 17- 19 18 years old. By this time, a lot of unnecessary, superfluous things had already accumulated in the Russian alphabet. But the most important drawback was still the extra letters. As a result of the reform, for example, the letters “yat”, “Izhitsa” and others were abolished.

Thus, language is a historically developing phenomenon.

Rice. 4. With the help of this poem, schoolchildren memorized words with the letter “YAT”. ()

Belinsky was right when he argued that “language lives together with the life of the people.”

Homework

Exercise No. 2. Baranov M.T., Ladyzhenskaya T.A. and others. Russian language. 7th grade. Textbook. 34th ed. - M.: Education, 2012.

Exercise: Using an etymological dictionary, determine the origin of the words:

bun, bell, athlete, businessman, sorcerer, villain, hairdresser, rotozey, wretched, parasite, thank you, bear, biography.

1. Etymology and history of words in the Russian language ().

Etymology and history of words in the Russian language

Russian language dictionaries

History of Russian writing

Literature

1. Razumovskaya M.M., Lvova S.I. and others. Russian language. 7th grade. Textbook. 13th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.

2. Baranov M.T., Ladyzhenskaya T.A. and others. Russian language. 7th grade. Textbook. 34th ed. - M.: Education, 2012.

3. Russian language. Practice. 7th grade. Ed. S.N. Pimenova. 19th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2012 ().

4. Lvova S.I., Lvov V.V. Russian language. 7th grade. In 3 parts, 8th ed. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2012.

Class: 7

• Educational: to show the development and improvement of the Russian language as a reflection of changes in the complex and diverse life of the people, the expansion and deepening of students’ knowledge of the Russian language, the formation of the ability to work in a group.
• Educational: develop children's interest in learning the Russian language, expand their active vocabulary and horizons, and instill a love for the Russian word.
• Educators: broaden the horizons of students, cultivate interest in the subject, independence, and activity of children.

Equipment:

• textbook "Russian language, grade 7" Baranov M.T., Ladyzhenskaya T.A. et al., Moscow, ed. "Enlightenment", 2007;
• dictionaries;
• multimedia.

During the classes

1. Org. moment.

2. Introduction to the textbook (design, explanation of symbols).

Look at the cover of the textbook, what do you think we have to study this school year? (Continue to study morphology, spelling and speech culture.)

3. Record the topic of the lesson. Setting goals and objectives.

The epigraph to the lesson can be the words of V.G. Belinsky:"Language lives together with the life of the people"

. Students write them down in their notebooks.

During the lesson, fill out the table:

	I want to know

4. Lecture - conversation.

• What is language?
• How many languages ​​are there in the world? ( Total number There are from 2500 to 5000 languages ​​in the world, exact figure it is impossible to establish due to the conventionality of the difference between different languages and dialects of the same language.

  It is impossible to count languages ​​like cows in a village herd. A cow either exists or it doesn’t: This is no longer a cow, but a sheep. This is also not a cow, but a bush by the road. We call a cow a specimen of a very specific animal. Languages ​​are more difficult. On

geographical map

the seas are depicted: Northern, Norwegian, Greenland: Where, in what exact place does one end and the other begin, and the other goes into the third? The border between the seas is determined very arbitrarily; a mile or two here, as a rule, is not so important.

• The same thing often happens with languages. You can, for example, drive from Moscow to the west, to Minsk or Polotsk, stopping in each village and listening to the speech of local residents in order to catch the moment when the Russian language will be replaced by Belarusian. However, only when we travel far into the Vitebsk region do we realize that they speak a dialect of the Belarusian language around us. The border between Russian and Belarusian languages ​​in these parts is blurred. It can only be carried out conditionally.

In this case, not only linguistic features themselves are taken into account, but also extra-linguistic circumstances.) 5. Reading ex. 1. Which group of Slavic languages ​​does Russian belong to? Using the material from Exercise No. 1, create a cluster.

Until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. all Slavs spoke a single language, which is now called Proto-Slavic. Later, differences begin to accumulate in eastern languages, Western and Southern Slavs.

Language

Eastern Slavs

• called Old Russian.

The language of any people, including Russian, does not remain unchanged. Changes occur both in the vocabulary and in the sound and grammatical structure of the language. The most mobile part of the language is vocabulary.

What phenomena do you think can influence changes in the lexical composition of a language? (Students from the 6th grade course know about borrowed, outdated words

, neologisms.

They can name such factors influencing lexical changes in the language as political events, the expansion of economic and cultural ties with other countries, the development of science and technology.)

7. This is interesting

M.V. Lomonosov in the 18th century introduced words such as atmosphere, horizon, temperature into the Russian language; At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, Karamzin first used words such as charity, personality, industry, influence, concentration.

Gradually, due to changes in everyday life and customs, historicisms (armyak, komzol, caftan, etc.) came out of active use, and archaisms received new names: otrok - teenager, this - this, zelo - very, etc.

Recently, we classified such words as lunar, rocket launcher, astronaut, alien, computer, etc. as new words in the language.

• Give examples of words that have recently entered our active vocabulary.

(Presentation, flash card, fax, exclusive, image, etc.)

The “old words” have also returned to the Russian language: governor, duma, jury, etc.

Which of these words is older: boots - sneakers; fur coat - jacket; Spartakiad - Olympics?

8. Working with text.

: Language...changes...with every generation. Only in the hustle and bustle of everyday life do people (not) ignore the aliens. 9. Changes that have occurred in the sound and grammatical structure of the language. Changes in the sound and grammatical structure of a language occur much more slowly than in vocabulary. They are discovered by scientists - linguists who compare texts written in different periods of the existence of the language.

For example, scientists discovered that the sound [f], like the letter f, is of Greek origin and did not previously exist in the Russian language. Words factory, mythology and others of non-Russian origin. leur). "Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers" ed. D.E.

Rosenthal, published in 1985, indicates the only acceptable form of pronunciation of the word foil - stress on the last syllable, and in folklore only [lor]. And on August 31, the Ministry of Education and Science wanted to approve an updated list of dictionaries and reference books containing the norms of the modern Russian literary language. According to Decree No. 195, which came into force on September 1, the list included “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” by B. Bukchina, I. Sazonova and L. Cheltsova, “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A. Zaliznyak, “Dictionary of Russian Accents language" by I. Reznichenko and "Big Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" with commentary by V. Telia.

Some rules had to change. For example, “coffee” could have two genders. According to the new rules, it was suggested to say “my coffee” and “my coffee.”

• Changes also occur in the grammatical structure of the language. These include changes in gender for some nouns. So, in “Eugene Onegin” A.S. Pushkin we read: “Half asleep in bed from the ball,” and in another chapter we see the writing: “He’s still in bed.” And here Pushkin was not mistaken in choosing the ending of the noun. The fact is that in those days the word bed, not bed, was used, and writing e at the end of the prepositional case of the word bed was correct.

Which gender forms of highlighted nouns are obsolete? 1. He was sitting by piano and leafed through the notes (A. Chekhov) - And to the humble piano

hands laid down powerfully. (A. Blok) 2. Branch poplars I've already thrown away the pale yellow sticky leaves. (B. Polevoy) - For poplar

high up I see a window there. (M. Lermontov) 3. The hot sun looks into the greenish sea, as if through a thin gray veil. (M. Gorky) - Anna’s face was covered veil.

(L. Tolstoy)

10. Summing up. Reflection.

Fill in the last column of the table “I know. I want to know. I found out.”

What new things did you learn during the lesson?

Will you find it difficult to complete your homework?

Make a syncwine on the topic "Language"

(Several student works are read out).

V.G. was right. Belinsky, arguing that “language lives together with the life of the people.”

Homework: ex. 3, 6.

Student works

Language
Mighty, great
Teaches, changes, develops
Lives with the people
Life
(Deulina Christina)

Language
Free, harmonious
Develops, changes, educates
Unites and unites people
Family
(Semyonov Arseny)

Language
Handsome, mighty
Changes, transforms, lives
Human thoughts and feelings
Life
(Voronina Nadezhda)

Chusovitina Varvara, 7.1 grade student at gymnasium No. 107 in St. Petersburg

In her work, the student was able to deeply and fully show what changes have taken place in the Russian language over the centuries, and prove that the language is truly a developing phenomenon. The work will be useful for Russian language lessons. Unfortunately, the presentation had to be shortened a little.

Download:

Preview:

Borrowed words in Russian

Any word that receives a place in the lexicon of a language

there is an event in the field of thought

Aphorism by V. A. Zhukovsky

Foreign borrowingswords is one of the ways to develop modern language.

Since ancient times, the Russian people entered into cultural, trade,

military, political connections with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowing.

During use most of

they were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually borrowed

words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - to assimilate, liken)

borrowing language, were among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign languages. For example, currently words such as sugar, beets, banya and others are considered Russian, although they were borrowed from Greek language. Thanks to borrowed words, Russian concepts expressed in a long phrase were replaced by a single word. At different times, words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original language.

Such words as school (from Latin language through

Polish), pencil (from Turkic languages), suit (from French) and many more etc. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is completely

a natural way to enrich any language. The Russian language has retained its

complete independence and only enriched himself through borrowed words.

Borrowings can be divided into two groups, depending on which language the borrowing was made from: related borrowings from the Slavic language family (this also includes borrowings from a related Old Church Slavonic language, which is sometimes called Old Bulgarian) and foreign language borrowings (from languages ​​of a different language system)

In terms of the time of penetration, the borrowed vocabulary is also heterogeneous: some words in it belong to the period of the Indo-European linguistic community, others to the pan-Slavic linguistic unity, others replenished the language of the Eastern Slavs in the Old Russian period of its existence, and, finally,

many words have already entered the Russian vocabulary itself.

By observing the borrowing of words, we can trace not only the development of the language, but also the history of the country.

At the same time, Russian words entered other languages.

In the history of the language there were periods of preferential borrowing:

• Original Russian vocabulary (proto-Slavic vocabulary)
• From Greek and then Old/Church Slavonic (the era of Christianization)
• From Turkic languages ​​(X, XII - XIV centuries)
• From Latin languages ​​(XV - XVII centuries)
• From the Polish language (XVI - XVIII centuries) - Polonisms
• From Dutch and German (18th century)
• From the French language (XVIII-XIX centuries)
• From in English(XX - early XXI centuries).

I. The original vocabulary of the Russian language

Many foreign words, borrowed by the Russian language in the distant past, are so assimilated by them that their origin is discovered only with the help of etymological analysis.Chronologically, the following groups of native Russian words are distinguished, united by their origin: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic (or Old Russian) and Russian proper.

Indo-Europeanare called words that after decayIndo-European ethnic community (end of the Neolithic era) were inherited by the ancient languages ​​of this language family, including the Common Slavic language. Thus, some terms will be common to many Indo-European languages

relationships: mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, food products: sheep, bull,wolf, meat, bone, etc.

Common Slavic (or Proto-Slavic) are words inherited Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes, which by the beginning of our era occupied a vast territory of Eastern, Central Europe and the Balkans. It was used as a single means of communication until approximately the 7th century. n. e., i.e. until the time when, in connection with the settlement of the Slavs (it began earlier, but reached its greatest intensity by the VI-VII centuries), the

linguistic community. It is natural to assume that even during the period of the spread of a single common Slavic language, some territorial

isolated dialect differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of individual Slavic language groups: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in each of these groups

words that appeared during the period of pan-Slavic unity are highlighted. For example, common Slavic names are those associated with flora: oak,

linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, bird cherry, forest, pine forest, tree, leaf, branch, bark, branch, root; titles cultivated plants: millet, barley, oats, wheat, peas, poppy seeds; titles labor processes and tools: fabric, forging, flogging, hoe, shuttle; names of the dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, roof; names of domestic and forest birds: chicken, goose, nightingale,

starling; names of food products: kvass, jelly, cheese, lard, etc.

East Slavic (or Old Russian) are words that, starting from the 8th century. arose only in the language of the Eastern Slavs (the ancestors of modern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), united by the 9th century. large feudal state Kievan Rus. Historical lexicology

still has little information about the specifics of ancient East Slavic vocabulary. However, it is certain that there are words known only to the three Eastern Slavic languages. Such words include, for example, names various properties, qualities, actions: gray, good,

rumble; kinship terms, household names: stepdaughter, uncle, lace, churchyard; names of birds, animals: finch, squirrel; units of counting: forty, ninety; a number of words with a general temporary meaning: today, suddenly, etc.

Among related linguistic borrowings, a significant group of words of Old Church Slavic origin stands out. However, words that came from other Slavic languages ​​- Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, etc. - also played a significant role in enriching the Russian language.

Old Slavonicisms became widespread in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century . They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic language, which long time used in a number

Slavic states as a literary written language, used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the Western and East Slavic languages, as well as many borrowings from Greek.

From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (therefore it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian).

Along with words from Slavic languages, Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development also included non-Slavic borrowings, for example Greek,

Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.

Borrowings from the Greek language began to penetrate into the original vocabulary during the period of pan-Slavic unity. Such borrowings include, for example, the words chamber, dish, cross, bread (baked), bed, cauldron, etc.

Borrowings were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later (the so-called East Slavic). These include words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, metropolitan, choir, lamp, icon, archpriest, sexton; scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history,

grammar; everyday terms: tub, bathhouse, lantern, bed, notebook; names of plants and animals: cypress, cedar, beet, crocodile, etc.

Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: trochee, anapest, comedy, mantle, verse, idea, logic, physics, analogy, etc.

IN different countries it took on the features of local languages ​​and in this form was used outside of the liturgical texts themselves. In the monuments of Old Russian writing (especially in chronicles), there are frequent cases of mixing Old Church Slavonic and Russian languages. This indicated that

Old Church Slavonicisms were not alien borrowings and were firmly established in the Russian language as closely related ones.

Old Church Slavonicisms borrowed by the Russian language are not all the same: some of them are Old Church Slavonic variants of words that already existed in the Common Slavic language (glad, enemy, etc.); others are actually Old Slavonic (lanits, mouth, persi, truth, etc.); and existing

the original Russian words synonymous with them are completely different in their phonetic structure (cheeks, lips, breasts, truth, etc.). Finally,

so-called semantic Old Slavonicisms are distinguished, i.e. words are common Slavic by the time they appeared, but received special meaning in Old Slavonic language and with this meaning they became part of the Russian vocabulary (sin, Lord, etc.).

Old Church Slavonic words have some stylistic

signs. Thus, in comparison with the Russian variants, Old Slavonicisms, originally used mainly in liturgical books, retained a more abstract meaning, for example: entice (drag), drag (drag), country (side).

Therefore, Old Church Slavonicisms often retain a connotation of bookishness and stylistic elation.

In the group of Slavicisms by origin we can distinguish:

A) Old Church Slavonic words, the Russian versions of which, although

recorded in ancient monuments, but not commonly used: good - bologo, moisture - vologa, etc.;

B) Old Church Slavonicisms, used along with the Russian version, which has a different meaning: citizen - city dweller, chief - head, ashes - gunpowder, milky - milky;

C) Old Church Slavonicisms, rarely used in modern language, having Russian variants: breg - shore, glas - voice, gate - gate, zlato - gold, mlad - young, etc. The use of words of the last group (for example, in poetic speech) is stylistically appropriate and justified. These Slavicisms

are Slavicisms both in origin and in stylistic use

Actually, all words are called Russian (with the exception of

borrowed), which appeared in the language already when it

formed first as the language of the Great Russian people (from the 14th century), and then as the national Russian language (from the 17th century). Actually Russian will be, for example, the names of actions: coo, thin out, crush, scold, grumble; names of household items, food products: wallpaper, irradiation, cover, cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; names of abstract concepts: result, deception, experience and many others. etc.

Words from Turkic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language due to various circumstances: as a result of early trade and cultural ties, as a result of military clashes. Early (common Slavic) borrowings include individual words from the languages ​​of the Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs, etc., for example:

feather grass, jerboa, pearls, idol, palace, beads, etc.

Among the Turkic borrowings, the most words are from the Tatar language, which is explained by historical conditions (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke). Especially many words remain from military, commercial and everyday speech:

caravan, holster, mound, quiver, astrakhan fur, flail, treasury, money, altyn, bazaar, carpet, raisins, watermelon, basin, iron, hearth, epancha, trousers, sash, sheepskin coat, arshin, groceries, noodles, stocking, shoe, chest, robe, fog, mess and many others. etc.

Turkic borrowings include almost all the names of the breed or color of horses: argamak (a breed of tall Turkmen horses), roan, dun, bay, karak, brown, brown. It is worth noting that the word horse itself, according to some scientists, is also Turkic, although other experts believe that it is an original Russian word.

Borrowings from the Latin language played a significant role in enriching the Russian language, especially in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology.

Most Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. (The role of special educational institutions.) Many words of Latin origin form a group of international terms, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian,

maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.

In the Russian language there are borrowings from other closely related Slavic languages, for example from Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, etc. In terms of time of penetration, they are later than

Old Slavonicisms. Thus, individual borrowings from the Polish language date back to the 16th-18th centuries. Some of them, in turn, go back to European languages(German, French, etc.). But there are also many actual Polish words (Polonisms). Among them there are those that are the name of the housing,

household items, clothing, means of transportation (apartment, belongings, clothes, bike (fabric), suede, jacket, carriage, sawhorses); the name of ranks, type of troops (colonel, (obsolete) sergeant, recruit, hussar); designation of an action (paint, draw, shuffle, beg); names of animals, plants,

food products (rabbit, parsley, chestnut, periwinkle - plant, bun, fruit, almond, jam), etc. Some Polonisms came into the Russian language through Ukrainian or Belarusian languages(for example, May Day,

silently, pan, etc.).

From the Ukrainian language came the words borscht, feta cheese (reformatted Romanian), bagel, hopak, detvora, etc.

All related Slavic borrowings were close to the Russian language, its system, were quickly assimilated and only etymologically can be called borrowings.

There are a few borrowings from the Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farmstead.

There are relatively few Scandinavian borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian, for example) in the Russian language. Most of them relate to ancient period. The appearance of these words is due to early trade relations. However, not only the words of trade vocabulary penetrated, but also maritime terms, everyday words. This is how they appeared proper names Igor, Oleg, Rurik, individual words like herring, lar, pud.

The largest part of Dutch words passed into the Russian language during the reign of Peter the Great. Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the new secular society.Since trade and navigation were actively developing, most of the Dutch borrowing was associated with these areas. Some other Dutch borrowings are related to the field of architecture and painting. Examples include words such as shipyard, pennant, harbor, drift, pilot, sailor, bale, calico, receipt and others. German includes a number of words from trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science, etc.: bill, stamp; corporal, camp, headquarters; tie, boots, workbench, chisel, jointer; spinach; easel, bandmaster, landscape, resort.

Active political and public relations with France in XVIII-XIX centuries promote penetration into the Russian language large quantity borrowings from French. French is becoming official language courtly aristocratic circles, in the language of secular noble salons. France became the standard of advanced thoughts of that era. Borrowings from this time - names of household items, clothing, food products:bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights; broth, marmalade,

cutlet, toilet ; words from the field of art: actor, entrepreneur, poster, ballet, juggler, director; terms from military field: artillery, battalion, garrison, pistol, cannonade, squadron; socio-political terms: bourgeois, demoralization, department and others.

Among other Western European borrowings, musical terminology of Italian origin stands out: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, slapstick, sonata, carnival, cavatina; Some everyday words were also included: vermicelli, pasta (came through French), gondola

etc. A small number of words came from Spanish: serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, then: caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato, etc.

TO end of the XVIII century, the process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached high degree development. The old-language language culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, consciously uses Church Slavonicisms and Western European borrowings.

From English to the 19th century. also included some nautical terms: midshipman, bot, brig, but much more words related to the development of social life, technology, sports, etc. entered the 20th century, for example: boycott,

leader, rally; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; steak, cake, pudding, etc. English words(often in American version) in the 90s of the XX century. in connection with

economic, social and political changes in Russian

society and industrial and cultural development English speaking countries. Borrowings from the end of the 20th century. touched different areas life:

technical (computer, display, file, byte), sports (bobsled, overtime, fighter), financial and commercial (barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing), art (remake, talk show, underground, thriller),

socio-political (briefing, rating, impeachment, lobby), etc.. Many of these words have already been completely assimilated into the Russian language.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can draw several conclusions:

• Borrowings from foreign languages inevitably, there is no need to be afraid of them, you just need to use them correctly and not abuse them.

• Borrowing enriches the language, makes it deeper, more multifaceted and plays a communicative role

• The Russian language absorbed the cultures of borrowing languages ​​and was replenished with new concepts and expressions, which made it, as I. S. Turgenev said in his work: “a great, powerful, truthful and free language.”

  From the Turkic language Pearl Iron

  From Latin Audience Proletariat, Revolution School

  From the Polish language Hussar Carriage Povidlo

  From Finnish From Hungarian Bekesa Pelmeni Khutor

  From Dutch From German language Harbor Spinach

  From French Ballet Artillery Bourgeois

  From Italian From Spanish Libretto Carnival Guitar Caravel

  From English Football Barter Beefsteak

  Conclusions Borrowing from foreign languages ​​is inevitable Borrowings enrich the language The Russian language absorbs the cultures of borrowing languages

  Thank you for attention