The term "Greek fire" was not used either in the Greek language or in the languages of Muslim peoples, it originates from the moment when Western Christians became acquainted with it during the Crusades. The Byzantines and Arabs themselves called it differently: “liquid fire”, “sea fire”, “artificial fire” or “Roman fire”. Let me remind you that the Byzantines called themselves “Romans”, i.e. by the Romans.
The invention of "Greek fire" is attributed to the Greek mechanic and architect Kalinnik, a native of Syria. In 673, he offered it to the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV Pogonatus (654-685) for use against the Arabs, who were besieging Constantinople at that time.
“Greek fire” was used primarily in naval battles as an incendiary, and according to some sources, as an explosive.
The recipe for the mixture has not been preserved for certain, but based on fragmentary information from various sources, it can be assumed that its composition included oil with the addition of sulfur and saltpeter. In the “Book of Fire” by Mark the Greek, published in Constantinople at the end of the 13th century, the following composition of Greek fire is given: “1 part rosin, 1 part sulfur, 6 parts saltpeter, finely ground, dissolve in linseed or laurel oil, then put in a pipe or into a wooden trunk and light it. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire." It should be noted that this composition served only to release a fiery mixture that used an “unknown ingredient.” Some researchers have suggested that the missing ingredient may have been quicklime. Other possible components have been suggested asphalt, bitumen, phosphorus, etc.
It was impossible to extinguish the “Greek fire” with water; attempts to extinguish it with water only led to an increase in the combustion temperature. However, subsequently, means were found to combat the “Greek fire” using sand and vinegar.
“Greek fire” was lighter than water and could burn on its surface, giving eyewitnesses the impression that the sea was burning.
In 674 and 718 AD. "Greek fire" destroyed the ships of the Arab fleet besieging Constantinople. In 941, it was successfully used against Russian ships during the unsuccessful campaign of the Kyiv prince Igor against Constantinople (Constantinople). A detailed description of the use of “Greek fire” in the battle with the Pisan fleet off the island of Rhodes in 1103 has been preserved.
“Greek fire” was thrown out using throwing tubes operating on the principle of a siphon, or the burning mixture in clay vessels was shot from a ballista or other throwing machine.
To throw Greek fire, long poles were also used, mounted on special masts, as shown in the figure. 
The Byzantine princess and writer Anna Komnena (1083 - c. 1148) writes about the pipes or siphons installed on Byzantine warships (dromons): “On the bow of each ship were the heads of lions or other land animals, made of bronze or iron and gilded, moreover, so terrible that it was scary to look at them; those heads were arranged in such a way that fire would spew out of their open mouths, and this was carried out by soldiers with the help of mechanisms obedient to them."
The range of the Byzantine “flamethrower” probably did not exceed several meters, which, however, made it possible to use it in naval combat at close range or in the defense of fortresses against wooden siege structures of the enemy.
Diagram of a siphon for throwing "Greek fire" (reconstruction) 
Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher (870-912) writes in his writings about the use of “Greek fire” in naval battles. In addition, in his treatise “Tactics,” he instructs officers to use newly invented hand pipes, and recommends spewing fire from them under the cover of iron shields.
Hand siphons are depicted in several miniatures. It is difficult to say anything definite about their structure based on the images. Apparently, they were something like a spray gun, which used the energy of compressed air pumped using bellows.
"Flamethrower" with a hand siphon during the siege of a city (Byzantine miniature) 
The composition of “Greek fire” was a state secret, so even the recipe for making the mixture was not written down. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905 - 959) wrote to his son that he was obliged “first of all to direct all his attention to the liquid fire thrown out through the pipes; and if they dare to ask you about this secret, as has often happened to me yourself, you must refuse and reject any entreaties, pointing out that this fire was given and explained by an angel to the great and holy Christian Emperor Constantine."
Miniature of the Madrid copy of the “Chronicles” of John Skylitzes (XIII century) 
Although no state other than Byzantium possessed the secret of "Greek fire", various imitations of it have been used by Muslims and crusaders since the Crusades.
The use of an analogue of “Greek fire” in the defense of a fortress (medieval English miniature) 
The once formidable Byzantine fleet gradually declined, and the secret of true "Greek fire" may have been lost. In any case, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, he did not help the defenders of Constantinople.
Experts have different assessments of the effectiveness of “Greek fire”. Some even consider it more of a psychological weapon. With the beginning of the mass use of gunpowder (XIV century), “Greek fire” and other combustible mixtures lost their military significance and were gradually forgotten.
The search for the secret of “Greek fire” was carried out by medieval alchemists, and then by many researchers, but did not give clear results. Its exact composition will probably never be established.
Greek fire became the prototype of modern napalm mixtures and the flamethrower.
Thank God, there were big problems with reliable weapons based on non-mechanical principles of destruction in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. By “non-mechanical principles of destruction” I mean such achievements of the deadening art as the impact on the human body of something other than an animal tooth, a horse’s hoof, a piece of wood or iron. That is, what? Magic, poisonous gases, bacteria and viruses, a jet of burning liquid, a laser beam, a blast wave or x-ray radiation.
However unreliable weapons based on non-mechanical principles were available, used and, alas, sometimes not without success.
Chemical weapon. Thus, the Spartans (famous entertainers...) during the siege of Plataea in 429 BC. burned sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which affects the respiratory tract. With a fair wind, such a cloud, of course, could cause a real sensation in the ranks of the enemy.
In favorable situations, for example, when the enemy took refuge in a cave or was heading into a besieged fortress through a freshly opened underground hole, the Greeks and Romans burned wet straw mixed with other materials of increased smell. With the help of bellows or due to the natural flow of air currents, the suffocating cloud fell into the cave/trench and then someone could be very unlucky.
However, the increased “contextuality” of such weapons, the lack of gas masks and synthetic chemistry for many centuries predetermined the extremely low frequency of use of chemical weapons.
Bacteriological weapons. There are different opinions about bacteriological weapons. It seems that some nomads bombarded the besieged cities with the help of throwing machines with pots of infected rodents. In the film “Flesh, Blood and Tears,” which I don’t like, a certain very smart warrior of the early 16th century. used for similar purposes the corpse of an infected dog that drank the blood of soldiers sick with bubonic plague.
The bosses of ancient historiography - Polybius, Livy and Plutarch - in their description of the Roman siege of Syracuse, allied to the Carthaginians (211 BC), do not report the use of thermal weapons, however, the Greek writer Lucian (2nd century AD) cites interesting information that was subsequently joyfully seized upon by Renaissance scientists, philosophers and artists.
Archimedes built a hexagonal mirror made up of small quadrangular mirrors. Each of these mirrors was mounted on hinges and driven by a chain drive. Thanks to this, the angles of rotation of the mirrors could be selected in such a way that the reflected rays of the sun were focused at a point located at the distance of the arrow from the mirror. Using his system of mirrors, Archimedes set fire to the Roman ships. This plot delighted the titans of the Renaissance and continues to excite the minds of modern historians of material culture. And the artist Giulio Parigi (1566-1633) painted a charming fantastic picture that you can see.
What personally confuses me about this plot?
First, some general physical considerations, which I will not give, so as not to bore the reader with boring details.
Secondly, the conspiratorial silence of the classical historian of the Punic War, namely Polybius. Mirrors are mentioned only by the late Lucian (2nd century AD), and he was a famous storyteller.
Thirdly, the lack of replicas. If Archimedes really succeeded in such a technical adventure, then why didn’t the handy Romans, having captured Syracuse in defiance of all the engineering miracles of the defenders, copy the battle mirrors? After all, quinqueremes they borrowed from the Carthaginians, and scorpios- among the Greeks.
But everything is possible in our best of all worlds. At worst, magic is possible.
Flamethrower weapon. Having dealt with exotic weapons, let’s consider flamethrower weapons, that is, quite traditional for wars of the 20th century.
The first reliable case of an incendiary composition being thrown from a pipe was recorded at the Battle of Delium (424 BC). The pipe was a hollow log, and the flammable liquid was a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil.
Somewhat later, a flamethrower was invented, which, however, did not throw a flammable composition, but a pure flame mixed with sparks and coals. Apparently, fuel, presumably charcoal, was poured into the brazier. Then, with the help of bellows, air began to be pumped in; With a deafening and terrible roar, flames burst from the crater. I think about five meters.
However, in some situations this modest range does not seem so ridiculous. For example, in a naval battle, when ships converge side by side, or during a sortie of besieged people against wooden siege structures of the enemy.
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Rice. 2. Hand flamethrower and flamethrower siphon |
However, the most interesting and mysterious, truly flamethrowing and truly inhuman weapon was the “Greek fire”.
Antiquity does not know these weapons, although "braziers", used in the battle of Panorma, can be considered harbingers of Greek death wisdom.
The real "Greek fire" appears in the Early Middle Ages. It is believed that it was invented by a certain Kallinikos, a Syrian scientist and engineer, a refugee from Maalbek. Byzantine sources even indicate the exact date of the invention of “Greek fire”: 673 AD. "Liquid fire" erupted from siphons. The flammable mixture burned even on the surface of the water.
"Greek fire" was truly the ultimate weapon in naval battles, since it was crowded fleets of wooden ships that provided an excellent target for an incendiary mixture. Both Greek and Arab sources unanimously declare that the effect of the “Greek fire” was simply stunning.
The exact recipe for the combustible mixture remains a mystery to this day. Usually such substances as petroleum, various oils, flammable resins, sulfur, asphalt and - of course! – a kind of “secret component”. The most adequate option seems to be a mixture of quicklime and sulfur, which ignites when it comes into contact with water, and some viscous carriers like oil or asphalt. And magic, of course.
For the first time, pipes with "Greek fire" were installed and tested on dromon, and then became the main weapon of all classes of Byzantine ships. With the help of "Greek fire" two large Arab invasion fleets were destroyed.
The Byzantine historian Theophanes reports: “In the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-decker ships equipped with Greek fire, and siphon-carrying ships... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear."
The second attempt was made by the Arabs in 718.
"The Emperor prepared fire siphons and placed them on board one- and two-decker ships, and then sent them against two fleets. Thanks to God's help and through the intercession of His Blessed Mother, the enemy was completely defeated."
There is no doubt that over time the Arabs understood one very simple thing: the psychological impact of Greek fire is much stronger than its actual destructive ability. It is enough to maintain a distance of about 40-50 m from the Byzantine ships. This is what was done. However, “not approaching” in the absence of effective means of destruction means “not fighting.” And if on land, in Syria and Asia Minor, the Byzantines suffered one defeat after another from the Arabs, then the Christians managed to hold Constantinople and Greece, to which the Saracens had to swim and swim, and therefore expose themselves to the blows of the Byzantine fire-carrying ships. long centuries.
It should also be noted that the Byzantines successfully used “Greek fire” not only against the Arabs, but also against the Rus. In particular, in 941, with the help of this secret weapon, a victory was won over the fleet of Prince Igor, which approached directly to Constantinople.
Publication:
XLegio © 1999
"Greek Fire" is one of the most attractive and exciting mysteries of the Middle Ages. This mysterious weapon, which had amazing effectiveness, was in service with Byzantium and for several centuries remained the monopoly of the powerful Mediterranean empire. As a number of sources suggest, it was “Greek fire” that guaranteed the strategic advantage of the Byzantine fleet over the naval armadas of all the dangerous rivals of this Orthodox superpower of the Middle Ages.
The prototype of Greek fire supposedly appeared in 190 BC. e. in defense of the island of Rhodes. But back in 424 BC. e. In the land battle of Delia, ancient Greek warriors released an incendiary mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil from a hollow log. Actually, “Greek fire” was invented in 673 by the engineer and architect Callinicus from Syrian Heliopolis (modern Baalbek in Lebanon) conquered by the Arabs, who apparently designed a special throwing device - a “siphon” - for throwing an incendiary mixture. Callinicus fled to Byzantium and there offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs. What the installation was like can be seen in the picture below. This is a reconstructed antique flamethrower with forced air injection.
Antique flamethrower with forced air injection (reconstruction). 1 - fire tube mouth; 2 - fryer 3 - damper for deflecting the air stream; 4 - wheeled trolley; 5 - a wooden pipe fastened with iron hoops to force air flow; 6 - shield for servants; 7 - bellows; 8 - bellows handles
Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the navy, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of the time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be extinguished by anything, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. For the first time, siphons with Greek fire were installed on Byzantine dromons during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Feofan wrote about her:
in the year 673, the overthrowers of Christ undertook a great campaign. They sailed and wintered in Cilicia. When Constantine IV learned of the approach of the Arabs, he prepared huge double-decker ships equipped with Greek fire and siphon carrier ships... The Arabs were shocked... They fled in great fear.
However, over the course of history, the recipe for this very fire was lost and today the exact composition is impossible to find out. Many alchemists and, later, scientists worked to uncover the secret components of the mixture. One of these researchers was the Frenchman Dupre, who in 1758 announced that he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. Tests were carried out near Le Havre, as a result of which a wooden sloop, located at a great distance in the open sea, was burned. King Louis XV, impressed and frightened by the effect of this weapon, bought all his papers from Dupre and destroyed them.
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G. engineer and architect Kallinikos from Syrian Heliopolis conquered by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon), who apparently designed a special throwing device - a “siphon” - for throwing an incendiary mixture. Callinicus fled to Byzantium and there offered his services to Emperor Constantine IV in the fight against the Arabs.
The installation with Greek fire was a copper pipe - a siphon, through which the liquid mixture erupted with a roar. Compressed air or bellows like blacksmith's were used as buoyant force.
Presumably, the maximum range of siphons was 25-30 m, so initially Greek fire was used only in the navy, where it posed a terrible threat to the slow and clumsy wooden ships of the time. In addition, according to contemporaries, the Greek fire could not be extinguished by anything, since it continued to burn even on the surface of the water. The first time Greek fire siphons were installed on Byzantine dromons was during the Battle of Cilicia. The historian Feofan wrote about her:
If on land the Byzantine troops suffered defeats from the Arabs, then at sea “Greek fire” gave the Byzantine fleet superiority over the enemy. Thanks to him, a major naval victory over the Arabs was won in 718. In 941, the Byzantines, with the help of “Greek fire,” defeated the fleet of Prince Igor Rurikovich that approached Constantinople. Greek fire was used against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade (-). The secret of preparing “Greek fire,” also called “Callinikos fire,” was kept strictly secret, but after the conquest of Constantinople, the recipe for making Greek fire was lost. It is known that oil for fire has been extracted on the Taman Peninsula since the 11th century. In 1106, Greek fire was used against the Normans during the siege of Durazzo (Dyrrhachium). In the 12th century, Greek fire was already known to the British, since the Angles had long served in Byzantium in the so-called. "Varangian Guard"
"Greek fire" was also used during sieges of fortresses. Some researchers, based on an analysis of Russian chronicles, conclude that Greek fire was familiar to the Russians and Polovtsians. Also, according to some information, Greek fire was in service with the army of Tamerlane. The last mention of the use of Greek fire was in the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mohammed II.
After the mass use of gunpowder-based firearms began, “Greek fire” lost its military significance; its recipe was lost at the end of the 16th century.
Manufacturing
The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown, as the names of the substances are not always clearly identified in historical documents. Thus, in Russian translations and descriptions, the word “sulfur” could mean any flammable substance, including fat. The most likely components were quicklime, sulfur and crude oil or asphalt. The composition could also include calcium phosphide, which, upon contact with water, releases phosphine gas, which ignites spontaneously in air.
Memoirs of eyewitnesses
see also
- Siphonophore - a device for throwing Greek fire
- Meng Huo You (猛火油 en: Meng Huo You)
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Literature
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
- Ardashev A.N. Chapter 3. Greek fire is an unsolved mystery of centuries. // Flamethrower-incendiary weapon. Illustrated reference book. - Aginskoye, Balashikha: AST, Astrel, 2001. - 288 p. - (Military equipment). - 10,100 copies. - ISBN 5-17-008790-X.
- Arendt V.V. Greek fire (fire fighting technique before the advent of firearms) // Archive of the history of science and technology. M., 1936. Series 1. Issue. 9.
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Excerpt characterizing Greek fire
“I have the honor to congratulate you, General Mack has arrived, he’s completely healthy, he just got a little sick,” he added, beaming with a smile and pointing to his head.The general frowned, turned away and walked on.
– Gott, wie naiv! [My God, how simple it is!] - he said angrily, walking away a few steps.
Nesvitsky hugged Prince Andrei with laughter, but Bolkonsky, turning even paler, with an angry expression on his face, pushed him away and turned to Zherkov. The nervous irritation into which the sight of Mack, the news of his defeat and the thought of what awaited the Russian army led him, found its outcome in anger at Zherkov’s inappropriate joke.
“If you, dear sir,” he spoke shrilly with a slight trembling of his lower jaw, “want to be a jester, then I cannot prevent you from doing so; but I declare to you that if you dare to make fun of me in my presence another time, then I will teach you how to behave.
Nesvitsky and Zherkov were so surprised by this outburst that they silently looked at Bolkonsky with their eyes open.
“Well, I just congratulated,” said Zherkov.
– I’m not joking with you, please remain silent! - Bolkonsky shouted and, taking Nesvitsky by the hand, walked away from Zherkov, who could not find what to answer.
“Well, what are you talking about, brother,” Nesvitsky said calmingly.
- Like what? - Prince Andrei spoke, stopping from excitement. - Yes, you must understand that we are either officers who serve our tsar and fatherland and rejoice in the common success and are sad about the common failure, or we are lackeys who do not care about the master’s business. “Quarante milles hommes massacres et l"ario mee de nos allies detruite, et vous trouvez la le mot pour rire,” he said, as if reinforcing his opinion with this French phrase. “C”est bien pour un garcon de rien, comme cet individu , dont vous avez fait un ami, mais pas pour vous, pas pour vous. [Forty thousand people died and the army allied to us was destroyed, and you can joke about it. This is forgivable for an insignificant boy like this gentleman whom you made your friend, but not for you, not for you.] Boys can only have fun like this,” said Prince Andrei in Russian, pronouncing this word with a French accent, noting that Zherkov could still hear him.
He waited to see if the cornet would answer. But the cornet turned and left the corridor.
The Pavlograd Hussar Regiment was stationed two miles from Braunau. The squadron, in which Nikolai Rostov served as a cadet, was located in the German village of Salzenek. The squadron commander, captain Denisov, known throughout the cavalry division under the name Vaska Denisov, was allocated the best apartment in the village. Junker Rostov, ever since he caught up with the regiment in Poland, lived with the squadron commander.
On October 11, the very day when everything in the main apartment was raised to its feet by the news of Mack's defeat, at the squadron headquarters, camp life calmly went on as before. Denisov, who had lost all night at cards, had not yet come home when Rostov returned from foraging early in the morning on horseback. Rostov, in a cadet's uniform, rode up to the porch, pushed his horse, threw off his leg with a flexible, youthful gesture, stood on the stirrup, as if not wanting to part with the horse, finally jumped off and shouted to the messenger.
“Ah, Bondarenko, dear friend,” he said to the hussar who rushed headlong towards his horse. “Lead me out, my friend,” he said with that brotherly, cheerful tenderness with which good young people treat everyone when they are happy.
“I’m listening, your Excellency,” answered the Little Russian, shaking his head cheerfully.
- Look, take it out well!
Another hussar also rushed to the horse, but Bondarenko had already thrown over the reins of the bit. It was obvious that the cadet spent a lot of money on vodka, and that it was profitable to serve him. Rostov stroked the horse’s neck, then its rump, and stopped on the porch.
“Nice! This will be the horse!” he said to himself and, smiling and holding his saber, ran up onto the porch, rattling his spurs. The German owner, in a sweatshirt and cap, with a pitchfork with which he was clearing out manure, looked out of the barn. The German's face suddenly brightened as soon as he saw Rostov. He smiled cheerfully and winked: “Schon, gut Morgen!” Schon, gut Morgen! [Wonderful, good morning!] he repeated, apparently finding pleasure in greeting the young man.
- Schon fleissig! [Already at work!] - said Rostov with the same joyful, brotherly smile that never left his animated face. - Hoch Oestreicher! Hoch Russen! Kaiser Alexander hoch! [Hurray Austrians! Hurray Russians! Emperor Alexander, hurray!] - he turned to the German, repeating the words often spoken by the German owner.
The German laughed, walked completely out of the barn door, pulled
cap and, waving it over his head, shouted:
– Und die ganze Welt hoch! [And the whole world cheers!]
Rostov himself, just like a German, waved his cap over his head and, laughing, shouted: “Und Vivat die ganze Welt”! Although there was no reason for special joy either for the German, who was cleaning out his barn, or for Rostov, who was riding with his platoon for hay, both these people looked at each other with happy delight and brotherly love, shook their heads as a sign of mutual love and parted smiling - the German to the cowshed, and Rostov to the hut he occupied with Denisov.
- What is it, master? - he asked Lavrushka, Denisov’s lackey, a rogue known to the entire regiment.
- Haven't been since last night. That’s right, we lost,” Lavrushka answered. “I already know that if they win, they’ll come early to brag, but if they don’t win until morning, that means they’ve lost their minds, and they’ll come angry.” Would you like some coffee?
- Come on, come on.
After 10 minutes, Lavrushka brought coffee. They're coming! - he said, - now there’s trouble. - Rostov looked out the window and saw Denisov returning home. Denisov was a small man with a red face, shiny black eyes, and black tousled mustache and hair. He had an unbuttoned mantle, wide chikchirs lowered in folds, and a crumpled hussar cap on the back of his head. He gloomily, with his head down, approached the porch.
“Lavg’ushka,” he shouted loudly and angrily. “Well, take it off, you idiot!”
“Yes, I’m filming anyway,” Lavrushka’s voice answered.
- A! “You’re already up,” Denisov said, entering the room.
“A long time ago,” said Rostov, “I already went for hay and saw the maid of honor Matilda.”
- That's how it is! And I puffed up, bg"at, why"a, like a son of a bitch! - Denisov shouted, without pronouncing the word. - Such a misfortune! Such a misfortune! As you left, so it went. Hey, some tea!
Denisov, wrinkling his face, as if smiling and showing his short, strong teeth, began to ruffle his fluffy black thick hair with both hands with short fingers, like a dog.
“Why didn’t I have the money to go to this kg”ysa (the officer’s nickname),” he said, rubbing his forehead and face with both hands. “Can you imagine, not a single one, not a single one?” "You didn't give it.
Denisov took the lit pipe that was handed to him, clenched it into a fist, and, scattering fire, hit it on the floor, continuing to scream.
- Sempel will give, pag"ol will beat; Sempel will give, pag"ol will beat.
He scattered fire, broke the pipe and threw it away. Denisov paused and suddenly looked cheerfully at Rostov with his sparkling black eyes.
- If only there were women. Otherwise, there’s nothing to do here, just like drinking. If only I could drink and drink.
- Hey, who's there? - he turned to the door, hearing the stopped steps of thick boots with the clanking of spurs and a respectful cough.
- Sergeant! - said Lavrushka.
Denisov wrinkled his face even more.
“Skveg,” he said, throwing away a wallet with several gold pieces. “G’ostov, count, my dear, how much is left there, and put the wallet under the pillow,” he said and went out to the sergeant.
Rostov took the money and, mechanically, putting aside and arranging old and new gold pieces in piles, began to count them.
- A! Telyanin! Zdog "ovo! They blew me away!" – Denisov’s voice was heard from another room.
- Who? At Bykov’s, at the rat’s?... I knew,” said another thin voice, and after that Lieutenant Telyanin, a small officer of the same squadron, entered the room.
Rostov threw his wallet under the pillow and shook the small, damp hand extended to him. Telyanin was transferred from the guard for something before the campaign. He behaved very well in the regiment; but they did not like him, and in particular Rostov could neither overcome nor hide his causeless disgust for this officer.
- Well, young cavalryman, how is my Grachik serving you? - he asked. (Grachik was a riding horse, a carriage, sold by Telyanin to Rostov.)
The lieutenant never looked into the eyes of the person he was talking to; his eyes constantly darted from one object to another.
- I saw you passed by today...
“It’s okay, he’s a good horse,” Rostov answered, despite the fact that this horse, which he bought for 700 rubles, was not worth even half of that price. “She started falling on the left front...,” he added. - The hoof is cracked! It's nothing. I will teach you and show you which rivet to use.
Information about the use of flamethrowers dates back to antiquity. These technologies were then adopted by the Byzantine army. The Romans somehow set fire to the enemy fleet as early as 618, during the siege of Constantinople undertaken by the Avar Khagan in alliance with the Iranian Shah Khosrow II. The besiegers used the Slavic naval flotilla to cross, which was burned in the Golden Horn Bay.
Warrior with a hand-held flamethrower siphon. From the Vatican manuscript of "Polyorcetics" by Heron of Byzantium(Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1605). IX-XI centuries
The inventor of “Greek fire” was the Syrian engineer Callinicus, a refugee from Heliopolis captured by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). In 673, he demonstrated his invention to Basileus Constantine IV and was accepted into service.
It was truly a hellish weapon from which there was no escape: “liquid fire” burned even on water.
The basis of “liquid fire” was natural pure oil. Its exact recipe remains a secret to this day. However, the technology of using a combustible mixture was much more important. It was necessary to accurately determine the degree of heating of the hermetically sealed boiler and the force of pressure on the surface of the air mixture pumped using bellows. The boiler was connected to a special siphon, to the opening of which an open fire was brought at the right moment, the boiler tap was opened, and the flammable liquid, ignited, was poured onto enemy ships or siege engines. Siphons were usually made of bronze. The length of the fiery stream they emitted did not exceed 25 meters.
Siphon for "Greek fire"
Oil for “liquid fire” was also extracted in the Northern Black Sea region and the Azov region, where archaeologists abundantly find shards from Byzantine amphorae with a resinous sediment on the walls. These amphorae served as containers for transporting oil, identical in chemical composition to those from Kerch and Taman.
Callinicus's invention was tested in the same year 673, when with its help the Arab fleet that first besieged Constantinople was destroyed. According to the Byzantine historian Theophanes, "the Arabs were shocked" and "fled in great fear."
Byzantine ship,armed with "Greek fire", attacks the enemy.
Miniature from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (MS Graecus Vitr. 26-2). XII century Madrid, Spanish National Library
Since then, “liquid fire” has more than once rescued the capital of Byzantium and helped the Romans win battles. Basileus Leo VI the Wise (866–912) wrote proudly: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and the people fighting on them. This is a fire prepared for siphons, from which it rushes with thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which we direct it.”
The Rus first became acquainted with the effect of “liquid fire” during Prince Igor’s campaign against Constantinople in 941. Then the capital of the Roman Empire was besieged by a large Russian fleet - about two hundred and fifty boats. The city was blocked from land and sea. The Byzantine fleet at this time was far from the capital, fighting with Arab pirates in the Mediterranean. The Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos had at hand only a dozen and a half ships, written off due to disrepair. Nevertheless, the basileus decided to give the Russians battle. Siphons with “Greek fire” were installed on the half-rotten vessels.
Seeing the Greek ships, the Russians raised their sails and rushed towards them. The Romans were waiting for them in the bay of the Golden Horn.
The Russians boldly approached the Greek ships, intending to board them. Russian boats surrounded the ship of the Roman naval commander Theophanes, who was walking ahead of the Greek battle formation. At this moment, the wind suddenly died down, and the sea became completely calm. Now the Greeks could use their flamethrowers without interference. The instant change in weather was perceived by them as help from above. Greek sailors and soldiers perked up. And from Feofan’s ship, surrounded by Russian boats, jets of fire poured out in all directions. Flammable liquid spilled onto the water. The sea around the Russian ships seemed to suddenly flare up; several rooks burst into flames at once.
The effect of the terrible weapon shocked Igor’s warriors to the core. In an instant, all their courage disappeared, the Russians were seized by panic. “Seeing this,” writes a contemporary of the events, Bishop Liutprand of Cremona, “the Russians immediately began to throw themselves from their ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in flames. Others, burdened with armor and helmets, sank to the bottom and were no longer seen, while some who stayed afloat burned even in the middle of the sea waves.” The Greek ships that arrived in time “completed the rout, sank many ships along with their crew, killed many, and took even more alive” (Continued by Theophanes). Igor, as Lev the Deacon testifies, escaped with “hardly a dozen rooks” that managed to land on the shore.
This is how our ancestors became acquainted with what we now call the superiority of advanced technology.
“Olyadny” (Olyadiya in Old Russian - boat, ship) fire became a byword in Rus' for a long time. The Life of Vasily the New says that Russian soldiers returned to their homeland “to tell what happened to them and what they suffered at the behest of God.” The living voices of these people scorched by fire were brought to us by the Tale of Bygone Years: “Those who returned to their land told about what had happened; and they said about the fire of the fire that the Greeks have this lightning from heaven; and, letting it go, they burned us, and for this reason they did not overcome them.” These stories are indelibly etched in the memory of the Russians. Leo the Deacon reports that even thirty years later, Svyatoslav’s warriors still could not remember liquid fire without trembling, since “they heard from their elders” that with this fire the Greeks turned Igor’s fleet into ashes.
View of Constantinople. Drawing from the Nuremberg Chronicle. 1493
It took a whole century for fear to be forgotten, and the Russian fleet again dared to approach the walls of Constantinople. This time it was the army of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, led by his son Vladimir.
In the second half of July 1043, the Russian flotilla entered the Bosphorus and occupied the harbor on the right bank of the strait, opposite the Golden Horn Bay, where the Roman fleet was laid up under the protection of heavy chains blocking the entrance to the bay. On the same day, Basileus Constantine IX Monomakh ordered all available naval forces to be prepared for battle - not only combat triremes, but also cargo ships on which siphons with “liquid fire” were installed. Cavalry detachments were sent along the coast. Closer to night, the basileus, according to the Byzantine chronicler Michael Psellus, solemnly announced to the Russians that tomorrow he intended to give them a naval battle.
With the first rays of the sun cutting through the morning fog, residents of the Byzantine capital saw hundreds of Russian boats built in one line from coast to coast. “And there was not a person among us,” says Psellus, “who looked at what was happening without severe mental anxiety. I myself, standing next to the autocrat (he was sitting on a hill sloping down to the sea), watched the events from afar.” Apparently, this terrifying sight also impressed Constantine IX. Having ordered his fleet to form into battle formation, he, however, hesitated in giving the signal to begin the battle.
The tedious hours dragged on in inaction. Noon had long passed, and the chain of Russian boats still swayed on the waves of the strait, waiting for the Roman ships to leave the bay. Only when the sun began to set did the basileus, having overcome his indecision, finally order Master Vasily Theodorokan to leave the bay with two or three ships in order to draw the enemy into battle. “They sailed forward easily and orderly,” says Psellus, “the spearmen and stone throwers raised a battle cry on their decks, the fire throwers took their places and prepared to act. But at this time, many barbarian boats, separated from the rest of the fleet, quickly rushed towards our ships. Then the barbarians split up, surrounded each of the triremes on all sides and began to poke holes in the Roman ships from below with pikes; At this time, ours were throwing stones and spears at them from above. When the fire that burned their eyes flew at the enemy, some barbarians rushed into the sea to swim to their own, others completely despaired and could not figure out how to escape.”
According to Skylitsa, Vasily Theodorokan burned 7 Russian boats, sank 3 along with people, and captured one, jumping into it with weapons in his hands and engaging in battle with the Rus who were there, from which some were killed by him, while others rushed into the water.
Seeing the master’s successful actions, Constantine signaled the attack to the entire Roman fleet. The fiery triremes, surrounded by smaller ships, burst out of the Golden Horn Bay and rushed towards the Rus. The latter were obviously discouraged by the unexpectedly large number of the Roman squadron. Psellus recalls that “when the triremes crossed the sea and found themselves right next to the canoes, the barbarian formation crumbled, the chain broke, some ships dared to remain in place, but most of them fled.”
In the gathering twilight, the bulk of the Russian boats left the Bosphorus Strait into the Black Sea, probably hoping to hide from persecution in the shallow coastal waters. Unfortunately, just at that time a strong east wind arose, which, according to Psellus, “furrowed the sea with waves and drove waves of water towards the barbarians. Some ships were immediately covered by the rising waves, while others were dragged along the sea for a long time and then thrown onto the rocks and onto the steep shore; Our triremes set off in pursuit of some of them, they sent some canoes under the water along with the crew, while other warriors from the triremes made holes and were half-submerged and brought to the nearest shore.” Russian chronicles tell that the wind “broke” the “prince’s ship,” but governor Ivan Tvorimirich, who came to the rescue, saved Vladimir, taking him into his boat. The rest of the warriors had to escape as best they could. Many of those who reached the shore died under the hooves of the Roman cavalry that arrived in time. “And then they arranged a true bloodletting for the barbarians,” Psellus concludes his story, “it seemed as if a stream of blood flowing from the rivers had colored the sea.”
The campaign of 1043 was the last in a long series of Russian invasions of the capital of the Roman Empire.