Derivative homonyms. Homonyms: examples of use in Russian

Words that sound the same, but have different, unrelated lexical meanings are called homonyms (from the Greek homos - identical, onyma - name). The phenomenon of coincidence in the sound of words that are not related in meaning is called homonymy.

Taking into account lexical-morphological and phonetic features, the following can be conventionally distinguished:

1) lexical homonyms;

2) morphological, or grammatical, homonyms (omoforms);

3) phonetic homonyms (homophones);

4) graphic homonyms (homographs).

1. Lexical homonyms are words with different meanings, but the same sound and spelling in all correlative forms, for example: key (spring) - key (master key), outfit (clothing) - outfit (business document) and others.

There are two types of lexical homonyms: complete (absolute) and incomplete (partial).

Full lexical homonyms are words that coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms: cage (bird) - cage (nervous), bench (bench) - shop (small commercial premises), etc.

Incomplete lexical homonyms are words that belong to one part of speech, but in which not all grammatical forms coincide: tact (metric musical unit) - tact (a sense of proportion that creates the ability to behave decently, in an appropriate manner) - the second member of the homonymic series is not has plural forms; bury (from the verb. to bury - putting it in the ground, to fall asleep: to bury a treasure) - to bury (from the verb. to bury, drip - for example, to introduce somewhere, dripping: to bury medicine in the nose).

Homonymous verbs have all the same imperfective forms (I bury, I buried, I will bury); forms of active participles of the present and past tenses (burying, burying); but there is no coincidence in the perfective forms (I’ll bury - I’ll bury, etc.).

Lexical homonyms belong to words of the same part of speech.

2. Phonetic homonyms (homophones from the Greek homos - the same + phone - sound) are words that have the same sound shell, but different spellings:

twig (thin flexible branch without leaves) – twig (artificial pond); company (group of people) – campaign (event); not my (possessive pronoun with a negative particle not) – dumb (adjective); from sleep (noun sleep with the preposition с in the gender form) – pine (evergreen coniferous tree with small cones), etc.

3. Grammatical homonyms (omoforms) are words that have the same sound and spelling only in certain grammatical forms:

saw (noun) – saw (from the verb to drink – in the feminine past tense form); I fly (from the verb to fly in the indicative mood of the 1st person singular) – I fly (from the verb to treat); pari (noun) – pari (from the verb “pariate” in the singular imperative), etc.

4. Graphic homonyms (homographs from the Greek homos - the same + grapho - I write) are words that have the same spelling, but differ in stress:

road (feminine noun) – road (short form of the adjective from dear); selo (from the verb sit down, the indicative form of the neuter past tense) – selo (noun); parit (from the verb p á rit) - soars (from the verb to soar), etc.

The distinction between homonym words and polysemantic words is very difficult, since both have the same sound envelope. One of the ways to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy is the selection of synonyms for words, the selection of cognates and the comparison of word forms; establishing the lexical compatibility of words, as well as their syntactic compatibility; Etymological information about homonym words plays an important role:

platform (platform; new, under construction, high) – platform (action program; political, old); braid (braid, braid - root "braid") - braid (mow); teak (French - nervous disease) – teak (English - type of wood) – teak (Dutch - fabric), etc.

The existence of polysemy and homomony creates certain difficulties in the use of words. The specific meaning of a word is revealed in the context, so the context must provide a correct understanding of the word, otherwise it may lead to ambiguity and inaccuracy.

For example: Having paid attention to the canvas, he [the restorer] studied it for several days... It is unclear to the reader what kind of canvas the restorer was studying - a work of art, a painting, or the fabric on which the painting was painted.

Another example: The excursionists listened to the explanations of the group leader. (It is unclear whether they listened carefully to the leader or missed his explanation).

Polysemy and homonymy are used to add expressiveness to the text.

One of the most common techniques based on the use of polysemy and homonymy is a pun, a play on words. As a rule, a pun is a means of creating humor and satire, since in a pun an ambiguity of the statement arises as a result of combining several meanings in one word, as well as playing on words with different meanings:

Who is this who shoots an arrow from a bow?

Shot the head of a bow ?

I am not words, I am dumb,

It was definitely not my shot. (Ya. Kozlovsky)

It is raining. It is snowing. Rumor spreads across the earth. There are disputes. Conversations... (F. Krivin).

The emergence of homonyms (full and partial, or incomplete) in the language is due to a number of reasons.

Homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word become so distant that in modern language they are already perceived as belonging to different words, and only a special etymological analysis helps to establish the commonality of these words.

This group of homonyms includes words such as month - one twelfth of the astronomical year and month - celestial body, moon; peace - harmony, absence of war and peace - the universe, the globe; camp - body, torso and camp - camp.

Sometimes homonyms appear as a result of the fact that the original word coincides in its sound with the borrowed one. For example, a club is a mass of something moving (dust, smoke, etc.) and a club is a public organization that unites people (from the English club), a forge is part of a shaft furnace or (originally) a blacksmith's hearth and a forge is a signal horn (from German Horn), etc.

Often, not only Russian and borrowed words sound the same, but due to certain phonetic laws in the Russian language, several words borrowed from different languages ​​acquire the same sound. Such a sound coincidence is observed in the words faucet (from Goal kraan) - a tube with a shutter used for pouring liquid, and faucet (from German Kran) - a mechanism for lifting and moving heavy objects; bank (from Polish banka) - a cylindrical glass, clay or tin vessel, bank (from Polish bank) - shallow and bank (from German Bank) - transverse bench in a boat; bar (from English bar) - a special type of restaurant, bar (from French barre) - alluvial shoal and bar (from Greek baros) - a special unit of atmospheric pressure; tank (from French bac) - a metal closed vessel and tank (from Gol. bak) - the bow part of the upper deck of a ship, etc.

The coincidence of the sound of Russian and borrowed words sometimes does not occur immediately. Words that once sounded differently in the process of historical development of the language turn out to sound the same, i.e. homonyms. This path has been followed, for example, by the words onion - a garden plant (an ancient borrowing from Germanic languages) and onion - a hand weapon for throwing arrows (goes back to an ancient Russian word in which the nasal sound o was present).

According to their morphological structure, homonyms are simple, or non-derivative, and derivative. Non-derivative homonyms are most abundant in the circle of nouns. Derivative homonymy is especially common among verbs (cf.: fall asleep - fall asleep and fall asleep - fill with something loose, etc.).

The so-called homoforms, homophones and homographs should not be confused with lexical homonyms, which are similar to lexical homonymy, but characterize in the broad sense of the word the phenomenon of so-called stylistic homonymy: 1) the coincidence of the sound and spelling of one or more forms of words - homoforms (cf. dear - named after the masculine adjective and dear - gender, date, prepositional case of the feminine adjective); 2) the same pronunciation, but different spellings of words and phrases - homophones (cf. eye - voice; could - wet); 3) the same spelling, but different pronunciation of words - homographs (cf. castle and castle).

Such phenomena, along with lexical homonymy itself, can be used for various stylistic purposes: to create expressiveness of speech, in puns, jokes, etc.

For example, in Ya. Kozlovsky’s poem “The Bear and the Wasps” from the series of poems “About diverse, identical, but different words”:
The bear, walking towards the market, carried a jar of honey to sell. Suddenly the bear is attacked! - The wasps decided to attack. A bear with an army of aspen fought with a torn out aspen. How could he not fall into a rage, If the wasps climbed into the mouth, Stung anywhere, They got it for this.

Homonymous words, along with polysemantic ones, also form certain groups, connected internally by the unity of semantically different words, similar in spelling, pronunciation, and the same grammatical forms. Consequently, they, falling out of the system of words, semantically close or opposite, nevertheless represent formally united syntagms, i.e. elements of the general language system.

Note. You should not mix up paronymous words with homonymous words (from the gr. para - near + onyma - name), which differ in meaning, but are similar in pronunciation, grammatical affiliation, and often the relationship of the roots. For example, subscription - subscriber, everyday - everyday, offensive - offensive, provide - introduce and many more. etc. (See about this in more detail: Vishnyakova O.V. Paronymy in the Russian language. M., 1984.)

Polysemy and homonymy are quite fully represented in explanatory dictionaries. However, not all cases of homonymization of words are given equally consistently and clearly. Thus, the word agent in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by D.N. Ushakov is interpreted as one polysemantic word, and in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in 4 volumes, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegov (starting from 9 -th edition) and the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by O.S. Akhmanova – as two different homonym words. Another example, the words basis, surface in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by D.N. Ushakov and in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegov are given as polysemantic words (i.e. one dictionary entry is given for each) , and in the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” by O.S. Akhmanova - as homonyms (four articles are given for two articles).

All of the above testifies, first of all, to the complexity of the problem of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, and sometimes to an insufficiently strict and consistent approach to this issue.

In 1974, the first “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” was published, compiled by O.S. Akhmanova.

In 1976, N.P. Kolesnikov’s “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language” was published in Tbilisi. In 1978, the second edition of this dictionary was published, which differs significantly from the previous one.

In the magazine "Russian Language at School" (1983-1985) the "Brief word-formation-etymological dictionary of Russian polysemy and single-root homonymy" by N.M. Shansky, N.N. Romanov, A.V. Filippov was first published.

Homonymy is a fairly common phenomenon in almost every language. It is characterized by the presence of identical words, which, however, have different meanings. Lexical data deserve special attention; they show that this type is the most common and active. This phenomenon enriches the language, making it more artistic and figurative.

Concept

Homonyms are understood as identical morphemes, words and other lexical units that have different meanings. Such a term is often confused with polysemantic words or paronyms, but in terms of their functions and characteristics these are completely different categories.

The term is of Greek origin and was introduced by Aristotle. Literally, the concept means “same” and “name”. Homonyms can either be present within some parts of speech or appear in different ones.

Homonymy and polysymy

In linguistics, in relation to identical words of the same part of speech, there are two different concepts. We are talking about polysemy and homonymy. The first concept implies the presence of identical words that have different meanings, however, which have a common historical origin. For example, if we consider the word “ether” in its two meanings. The first is organic matter, and the second is television or television broadcasting. The meaning of the words is different, but it was formed from one common lexical unit, namely from the Greek term, which literally means “mountain air”.

As for homonymy, here we are also talking about different meanings of words, but there is no historical connection between them, and identical spelling is a coincidence. For example, the word “boron”, which has two meanings: a chemical element and There is no connection between these words, and even the lexical units themselves came into the Russian language in different ways. The first is Persian, and the second is Slavic.

Some linguists, however, look at it differently. In accordance with this, polysymy is when two words have a common semantic connotation and lexical meaning. Homonyms have no such meaning. It does not matter the historical origin of the word. For example, the word “braid”. The connecting element is that the two lexical items describe something long and thin.

Classification

Taking into account vocabulary, morphology and phonetics, homonymy can be as follows:

• Lexical homonyms. Examples of words: key (as a spring and as a tool for opening doors), peace (absence of war and the whole planet), etc.
• Homonyms are of morphological or grammatical type, which are also known as homoforms.
• Phonetic or homophones.
• Graphic, or homographs.

There are also complete and incomplete homonyms. In the first case, the words coincide in all their forms, and in the second - only in some.

Differences between lexical homonyms and other types

Lexical homonyms are often confused with other types of this category, but they have distinctive characteristics and their own specifics:

• As for homoforms, they have the same spelling or sound only in a few specific forms. For example, the word “dear”, which denotes a masculine and feminine adjective: “dear textbook” and “give flowers to a dear woman.”
• Homophones are distinguished by identical pronunciation, but different spellings of lexical units, which lexical homonyms do not have. Examples: eye - voice, wet - could, etc.
• Differences are also typical for homographs. This refers to words that have the same spelling but different pronunciation. Lexical homonyms do not have this. Examples of sentences with the word “lock”: 1. She opens the door lock. 2. The king and queen went to their castle.

These phenomena in language are used for a variety of lexical purposes, from expressiveness and richness of artistic speech to puns.

Features of lexical homonyms

This type of homonymy is characterized by coincidence in all their forms. In addition, belonging to one part of speech is a mandatory attribute that lexical homonyms have. Examples: graphic - as a plan and as an artist.

There are two types of such lexical homonyms:

• Complete or absolute. They are characterized by the coincidence of all morphological and grammatical forms. For example, a cage (bird and nervous), a shop (trading and bench), etc.
• Partial or incomplete lexical homonyms. Examples: tact (as a sense of proportion and as a musical unit).

Regardless of the type, this phenomenon appears due to certain reasons.

Appearance methods

Lexical homonyms arise in a language for various reasons:

• The divergence of meanings of one lexical unit is so far that it is no longer perceived as one word. For example, a month (part of a year and a celestial body).
• Coincidences of national vocabulary and borrowings. For example, a club (in Russian - a mass of dust or smoke; in English - a public organization or meeting of people).
• Coincidence of words that were borrowed from different languages. For example, a tap (from Dutch - a tube that allows you to pour liquid; from German - a special mechanism for lifting loads).

Homonyms do not appear in the language immediately. Most often, this requires a lot of time, as well as certain historical conditions. At the initial stage, words may be slightly similar in sound or spelling, but due to changes in the structure of the language, in particular its morphology and phonetics, lexical units may become homonyms. The same applies to splitting the meanings of one word. In the process of historical development, the connecting semantic element between interpretations of the word disappears. Because of this, homonyms are formed from polysemantic lexical units.

Homonymy is an active phenomenon in almost any language in the world. It is characterized by the presence of words with the same spelling or sound, but with different meanings. Homonyms, in particular their lexical types, change the language, making it more figurative and artistic. This phenomenon arises for various reasons, most often historical or structural, and has its own characteristics and characteristic features in each specific language.

Plan.

1. The concept of homonyms. Types of homonyms (lexical homonyms, homoforms, homophones, homographs).

2. Reasons for the emergence of homonyms.

3. Distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy.

4. Stylistic use of homonyms.

1. The concept of homonyms.

Words that are identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning, are called homonyms (Greek homonyma from homos - identical and onyma - name).

Unlike polysemantic words, homonyms have no connection with each other in meaning. Yes, in sentences Keys, locks, constipations sound(Pushk.) and The springs were jumping over the stones, making a sound like a icy wave.(Lerm.) words to luchi - a tool for locking and unlocking locks and keys - and drainage, spring - are homonyms.

Types of homonyms.

There are lexical homonyms (complete and incomplete), homoforms, homophones and homographs.

1)Lexical homonyms- these are words of the same grammatical category, identical in sound and spelling in all (or in a number of) forms inherent in them.

Yes, homonym words jar(vessel) and bank(shallow), b lok(lifting device) and block(union), nest(birds) and nest(words) coincide in all case forms singular and plural: banks - banks, bank - bank, bank - bank, bank - bank, about the bank - about the bank; banks - banks, banks - banks, banks - banks,
about banks - about banks etc.; for homonym words force(street with cars) and force(sit down) the entire system of forms coincides - forms of face, number, gender, mood, aspect: I’ll force you - I’ll force you, you’ll force me - you’ll force me, I’ll force you - I’ll force you; zas tavim - we will force, you will force - you will force, they will force - they will force; forced - forced, forced - forced, would have forced - would have forced. Such homonyms are called full , or absolute , lexical homonyms .

But some homonyms may have the same sound and spelling only in a number of their inherent grammatical forms. For example, the word onion(arrow throwing weapon) and onion(garden plant) bor (forest) and boron(chemical element), n Olka(horizontal board) and p Olka(vegetable gardens) coincide in sound and spelling in all singular case forms, but in the plural there is no such coincidence, since the second of the given pairs of words do not have plural forms; words pickle(to salt) and pickle(to salt) bury(pit) and bury(medicine) are the same in sound and spelling in all imperfective forms, but the perfective forms of these verbs sound and are written differently. Wed: salting - salting, salting - salting, salting - salting, salting - salting, salting - salting, But: I'll pickle it - I'll pickle it, I'll pickle it - I'll pickle it and etc. Such homonyms are called incomplete , or partial , lexical homonyms .

2)Omoforms Different forms of words of the same or different grammatical categories that sound the same are called. For example, the forms of different cases of nouns may have the same sound and spelling: spouse, mechanics, equipment - feminine singular nominative nouns and spouse, mechanics, equipment - masculine singular genitive nouns (from spouse, mechanic, technician); numeral three coincides in sound and spelling with the imperative form of the verb rub: tpu; nouns sound and spell the same abscess and gerunds abscess, noun oven and verb bake; noun evil and short adjective evil, pronoun mine and imperative verb my, braid(from to wasp) and short adjective braid, genitive plural noun pigeons(from dove) and comparative adjective pigeons(from blue), noun ceiling and verb p ceiling(from ceiling).

Consequently, homoforms are morphological homonyms, since their appearance is due to grammatical reasons.

3) TO homophones These include words with the same sound, but different meanings and spellings. For example: hammer - young(according to the law of deafening voiced consonants at the end of a word d sounds like t) lead - carry(no law of deafening of voiced sounds before voiceless z sounds like s), campaign - company(in the first syllable a and o coincide in the sound [^]), old-timer - guard(according to the law of reduction a and o in the second pre-stressed syllable sound like the sound [ъ]), inert - bony(in combination stn the medial consonant is not pronounced), islands - acute(combination of sounds ova and ending -Wow pronounced like -ъвъ), brother - to take(combinations tts and ts pronounced like Ic]), Eagle - eagle. Hence, homophones - these are phonetic homonyms, since their occurrence is explained by the action of sound laws.