Planned amount of variable costs formula. Fixed and variable costs

Every organization strives to maximize profits. Any production bears the cost of purchasing factors of production. At the same time, the organization strives to achieve such a level that a given volume of products is provided with the lowest costs. The firm cannot influence the prices of resources. But, knowing the dependence of production volumes on the number of variable costs, you can calculate the costs. Cost formulas will be presented below.

Types of costs

From the point of view of the organization, expenses are divided into the following groups:

individual (costs of a specific enterprise) and social (costs of manufacturing a specific type of product, incurred by the entire economy);
alternative;
production;
general.

The second group is additionally divided into several elements.

Total expenses

Before studying how costs are calculated, cost formulas, let's look at the basic terms.

Total Cost (TC) is the total cost of producing a specific volume of items. In the short term, a number of factors (for example, capital) do not change, part of the costs does not depend on the volume of output. This is called total fixed cost (TFC). The amount of expense that changes with output is called total variable cost (TVC). How to calculate total costs? Formula:

Fixed costs, the calculation formula of which will be presented below, include: interest on loans, depreciation, insurance premiums, rent, salary. Even if the organization is not working, it must pay rent and loan debt. Variable costs include salaries, material costs, electricity bills, etc.

With an increase in output volumes, variable production costs, the calculation formulas for which were presented earlier:

grow proportionally;
slow down growth when reaching the maximum profitable volume of production;
resume growth in connection with the violation of the optimal size of the enterprise.

Average expenses

In an effort to maximize profits, an organization seeks to reduce unit costs. This ratio shows such a parameter as (ATC) average cost. Formula:

ATC = TC \ Q.

ATC = AFC + AVC.

Marginal costs

The change in the total amount of costs with an increase or decrease in the volume of production per unit shows the marginal cost. Formula:

From an economic point of view, marginal cost is very important in determining the behavior of an organization in a market environment.

Interconnection

The marginal cost should be less than the overall average (per unit). Failure to comply with this ratio indicates a violation of the optimal size of the enterprise. Average costs will change in the same way as margins. It is impossible to constantly increase the volume of production. This is the law of diminishing returns. At a certain level, variable costs, the calculation formula for which was presented earlier, will reach their maximum. After this critical level, an increase in production volumes even by one unit will lead to an increase in all types of costs.

Example

Having information about the volume of production and the level of fixed costs, you can calculate all existing types of costs.

Issue, Q, pcs.	Total costs, TC in rubles

Without being involved in production, the organization incurs fixed costs at the level of 60 thousand rubles.

Variable costs are calculated using the formula: VC = TC - FC.

If the organization is not engaged in production, the sum of variable costs will be zero. With an increase in production for 1 piece, VC will be: 130 - 60 = 70 rubles, etc.

Marginal costs are calculated using the formula:

MC = ΔTC / 1 = ΔTC = TC (n) - TC (n-1).

The denominator of the fraction is 1, since each time the volume of production increases by 1 piece. All other costs are calculated using standard formulas.

Opportunity cost

Accounting costs are the cost of the resources used in their purchase prices. They are also called explicit. The amount of these costs can always be calculated and justified by a specific document. These include:

the salary;
equipment rental costs;
fare;
payment for materials, services of banks, etc.

Economic cost is the value of other assets that can be obtained through alternative use of resources. Economic costs = Explicit + Implicit costs. These two types of expenses most often do not coincide.

Implicit costs are payments that a firm could receive if its resources were used more profitably. If they were bought in a competitive market, then their price would be the best of the alternative. But pricing is influenced by the state and market imperfections. Therefore, the market price may not reflect the real cost of resources and may be higher or lower than the opportunity cost. Let's take a closer look at the economic costs, cost formulas.

Examples of

An entrepreneur, working for himself, receives a certain profit from the activity. If the sum of all expenses incurred is higher than the income received, then the entrepreneur ultimately suffers a net loss. It, together with the net profit, is recorded in the documents and refers to explicit costs. If an entrepreneur worked from home and received an income that would exceed his net profit, then the difference between these values would be an implicit cost. For example, an entrepreneur receives a net profit of 15 thousand rubles, and if he worked for hire, he would have 20 000. In this case, there are implicit costs. Cost formulas:

NI = Salary - Net profit = 20 - 15 = 5 thousand rubles.

Another example: an organization uses in its activities the premises that belong to it by right of ownership. In this case, the amount of utility costs (for example, 2 thousand rubles) is an obvious expense. If the organization rented this premises for rent, then it would receive an income of 2.5 thousand rubles. It is clear that in this case the company would also pay utility bills on a monthly basis. But she would also receive a net income. There are implicit costs involved. Cost formulas:

NI = Rent - Utilities = 2.5 - 2 = 0.5 thousand rubles.

Recoverable and sunk costs

The fees for an organization to enter and exit a market are called sunk costs. Nobody will refund the expenses for registering an enterprise, obtaining a license, and paying for an advertising campaign, even if the company ceases to operate. In a narrower sense of the word, sunk cost refers to the cost of resources that cannot be used in alternative directions, such as the purchase of specialized equipment. This category of expenses does not belong to economic costs and does not affect the current state of the company.

Costs and price

If the average costs of the organization are equal to the market price, then the firm receives zero profit. If favorable conditions increase the price, then the organization makes a profit. If the price corresponds to the minimum average cost, then the question arises about the feasibility of production. If the price does not cover even the minimum of variable costs, then the losses from the liquidation of the company will be less than from its functioning.

International Labor Distribution (MRI)

The world economy is based on MRI - the specialization of countries in the manufacture of certain types of goods. This is the basis for any kind of cooperation between all states of the world. The essence of MRI is manifested in its dismemberment and unification.

One production process cannot be divided into several separate ones. At the same time, such a division will allow to unite separate industries and territorial complexes, to establish interconnection between countries. This is the essence of MRI. It is based on the economically advantageous specialization of individual countries in the manufacture of certain types of goods and their exchange in quantitative and qualitative proportions.

Development factors

The following factors are driving countries to participate in MRI:

Domestic market volume. Large countries have more opportunities to find the necessary factors of production and less need to participate in international specialization. At the same time, market relations develop, import purchases are compensated by export specialization.
The less the state's potential, the greater the need to participate in MRI.
The high provision of the country with mono-resources (for example, oil) and the low level of provision with minerals encourage active participation in MRI.
The greater the share of basic industries in the structure of the economy, the less the need for MRI.

Each participant finds economic benefits in the process itself.

6.1. Theoretical introduction

Within the framework of ensuring the financial stability of the enterprise, great attention is paid to cost management. By the type of dependence of the expense item on the volume of production, costs can be divided into two categories - permanent and variables... Variable costs ( VC) depend on the volume of production (for example, raw materials, piecework wages, fuel and electricity for production machines). As a rule, variable costs increase in proportion to the growth of production volumes, i.e. the value of variable costs per unit of output (v) remains constant

where VC is the sum of variable costs,

Q is the volume of production.

Fixed costs ( FC) do not depend on the volume of production (for example, staff salaries, accrued depreciation, etc.). The same category includes fixed costs, which, with a significant increase in production volumes, change stepwise, i.e. costs that can be attributed to conditionally constant (for example, with an increase in output above a certain level, a new warehouse is needed). Fixed unit costs (f) decrease as production increases

Depending on the assignment of an item of expenditure to a specific type of product, costs are divided into direct (associated with the production of a specific type of product) and indirect (not associated with the production of a specific product). The division of costs into direct and indirect is used to study the impact of release (or refusal to release) of a particular type of product on the amount and structure of costs. Practice shows that for most enterprises direct and variable costs coincide in a first approximation. The accuracy of coincidence of direct and variable costs in many cases is not less than 5%. In a preliminary analysis that highlights the main cost components, this accuracy is sufficient.

The classification of costs into variables and constants is necessary to calculate the break-even point, profitability threshold and financial safety margin.

Break even characterizes the critical volume of production in physical terms, and profitability threshold- in terms of value. The calculation of parameters is based on the calculation of gross income

where GI is gross income;

S - implementation in value terms;

P is the price of the product.

The break-even point (Q without) is the volume of output at which the gross income is zero. From equation (6.3)

. (6.4)

The profitability threshold (S r) is the amount of proceeds from sales that reimburses production costs, but the profit is zero. The profitability threshold is calculated by the formula

The difference between sales in value terms and variable costs determines the profit margin (MS)

. (6.6)

Marginal income per unit of production with is equal to the additional gross income that the company will receive as a result of the sale of an additional unit of production

. (6.7)

As can be seen from (6.6) and (6.7), the marginal income does not depend on the level of conditionally fixed costs, but increases with decreasing variables.

The difference between sales revenue and the profitability threshold is financial strength(ZFP). ZFP is the amount by which the volume of production and sales deviates from the critical volume. FFP can be characterized by relative and absolute indicators.

In absolute terms, the FFP is

, (6.8)

In relative terms, the FFP is

(6.9)

where Q- the current volume of the issue.

ZFP shows how many percent you can change the volume of sales without falling into a loss zone. The greater the margin of financial strength, the less entrepreneurial risk.

A key characteristic in the cost management process is the level of additional expense associated with reducing itemized costs. Cost management is reduced to identifying controlled items (for which adjustments are possible as a result of certain activities), determining the amount of cost reduction (in%) and one-time costs for the relevant activities. Those activities for which the efficiency indicator (e) is the highest are considered acceptable. .

, (6.10)

where ΔGI is the relative change in gross income as a result

cost reduction;

GI 0 - the level of gross income before cost reduction;

GI 1 - the level of gross income reduction in costs;

Z is the one-time cost of the reduction measures

The relationship between changes in profits and costs:

, (6.11)

where Cx- some item of expenses,

Spr- all other expenses.

The following formula shows the percentage of the change in gross income when expenses change by Cx by 1%:

. (6.12)

Formula (6.12) is valid for a situation when the amount of revenue and the amount of other expenses are fixed.

Problem 1... The enterprise produces carbonated drink "Baikal". Variable costs per unit of production - 10 rubles, fixed costs - 15,000 rubles. Sale price RUB 15 How much drink must be sold to generate a gross income of 20,000 rubles?

Solution.

1. Let's define the marginal income (rubles) according to the formula (6.7):

2. According to (6.3), we determine the amount of products (units) that must be sold to obtain GI in the amount of 20,000 rubles.

Objective 2. The price of the product is 4 rubles. at the level of variable costs - 1 rub. The volume of fixed costs is 14 rubles. The volume of the issue is 50 units. Determine the break-even point, the threshold of profitability and the margin of financial strength.

Solution.

1. Let's determine the volume of production at the break-even point:

(units).

2. According to the formula (4.5), the profitability threshold (rubles) is equal to:

3. The absolute value of the financial safety margin:

4. The relative value of the margin of financial strength:

The company can change the volume of sales by 90% without incurring losses.

6.3. Self-study tasks

Objective 1. Variable costs for the release of a unit of product are 5 rubles. Fixed monthly costs 1,000 rubles. Determine the break-even point and the profit margin at the break-even point if the product price on the market is 7 rubles. Determine the financial safety margin with a volume of 700 units.

Task 2... Sales proceeds - 75,000 rubles, variable costs - 50,000 rubles. for the entire production volume, fixed costs amounted to 15,000 rubles, gross income - 10,000 rubles. The volume of manufactured products is 5,000 units. Unit price - 15 rubles. Find the break-even point and profitability threshold.

Objective 3. The company sells products with a given demand curve. The unit cost is 3 rubles.

Price, rub.
Demand, pcs.

What will be the price and profit margin, given that the firm's goal is to maximize the profit from sales.

Task 4. The company produces two types of products. Determine the profit and margin income from the main and additional orders. Fixed costs - 600 rubles.

Indicators	Item 1	Item 2	Add. order
Unit price, rub.
Variable costs, rub.
Release, pcs.

Task 5. The breakeven point at the aircraft plant is 9 aircraft per year. The price of each aircraft is 80 million rubles. The profit margin at the break-even point is RUB 360 million. Determine how much an aircraft plant spends per month on expenses not directly related to production?

Task 6. The skate seller is doing market research. The population of the city is 50 thousand people, distribution by age:

Parents of 30% of schoolchildren are ready to buy skates. The firm makes decisions about entering the market if the resulting marginal profit is sufficient to cover costs in the amount of 45,000 rubles. at variable costs of 60 rubles. What should be the price to maximize the profit margin?

Task 7. The firm expects to sell 1,300 furniture sets. The costs for 1 set are 10,500 rubles, including variable costs 9,000 rubles. Selling price RUB 14,500 How much volume needs to be sold in order to reach the breakeven level of production? What is the volume that provides a production profitability of 35%. What will be the profit for a 17% increase in sales? What should be the price of a set in order to sell 500 items to make a profit of 1 million rubles?

Problem 8. The work of the enterprise is characterized by the following indicators: proceeds from sales of 340 thousand rubles, variable costs 190 thousand rubles, gross income of 50 thousand rubles. The company is looking for ways to increase its gross income. There are options to reduce variable costs by 1% (the cost of the event is 4 thousand rubles), or alternative measures to increase the volume of sales by 1% (one-time expenses in the amount of 5 thousand rubles). What activities should the funds be spent on in the first place? Draw a conclusion based on the indicator of the effectiveness of measures.

Problem 9... As a result of the implementation of a comprehensive program at the enterprise, the cost structure has changed, namely:

The value of variable costs increased by 20%, while maintaining the value of constant costs at the same level;

15% of fixed costs were transferred to the category of variables, keeping the total costs at the same level;

Reduced total costs by 23%, including due to variables by 7%.

How did the changes affect the break-even point and ZFP, if the price is 18 rubles? The volume of production and costs are given in the table.

Indicators	Months
Indicators
Production volume, pcs.
Production costs, rub.

Problem 10. The results of the analysis of the structure of expenses and opportunities for reducing costs are shown in the table.

Determine the final cost reduction (in%) and select from the proposed cost items the one that should be paid attention to first.

If the organization's variable costs per unit of output are reduced by 15%, provided that other indicators remain unchanged, then the break-even point will be:

x - 34x = 200000

x = 3571 product units.

A decrease in variable costs per unit of product by 15% (6 rubles) will cause a decrease in sales volume only by 10.8% (429 rubles).

In practice, it is very difficult to change one or another indicator in a favorable direction: production is planned with maximum savings, and actual costs are slightly higher than expected.

A variation of the method of equations is the method of margin analysis. The main category of margin analysis is margin income.

Marginal income is the difference between revenue from product sales and variable costs. Margin income is designed to recover fixed costs and generate profits. In other words, the profit from the sale of products in the amount of fixed costs is understood as the marginal income of the organization.

The following formula is used to calculate the profit:

Profit = total marginal income - total fixed costs.

Since the profit is zero at the break-even point, we get:

Income per unit margin sales volume = total fixed costs.

Thus, the formula for calculating the break-even point using the profit margin method will look like this:

Break-Even Point = Cumulative Fixed Cost / Marginal Income per Unit of Product.

The purpose of the margin analysis is to determine the volume of products sold, at which the sales proceeds are equal to their full cost price.

Let's calculate the break-even point in units of production based on the data given in example 1.

To calculate the break-even point, you need to calculate the marginal income per unit of production, which will be equal to the difference between the profit of the organization per unit of production sold and variable costs per unit of production. We get:

Break-even point = 200000: (90-40) = 4000 units of production.

With the help of marginal analysis, it is possible to establish not only the break-even point of the volume of production, but also the critical level of the sum of fixed costs, as well as prices for a given value of other factors.

The critical level of fixed costs for a given level of marginal income and sales volume is calculated as follows:

PZkr = Vn (Ts - PR) = Vn

Md,(9)

where C

- unit price of products sold;

NS- variable costs per unit of production;

PZkr- the critical level of fixed costs;

- the number of products sold in natural units;

Md- marginal income per unit of production.

The meaning of this calculation is to determine the maximum allowable amount of fixed costs, which is covered by marginal income for a given volume of production, price and level of variable costs per unit of output. If fixed costs exceed this level, then the company will be unprofitable.

In addition to the indicators discussed above, it is necessary to calculate such an indicator as the indicator of the marginal safety factor (financial stability margin).

The marginal safety factor is a value that shows the excess of the actual proceeds from the sale of products over its threshold (critical) value:

MZP = Vf - Vkr

where Minimum wage

- margin safety margin;

Vf- the actual amount of proceeds;

- critical (threshold) amount of revenue.

in percentage terms:

MWP = (Vf - Vkr) / Vf

100% ,(11)

The marginal safety factor shows how many percent the actual production volume is higher than the critical (threshold), that is, how much the organization can reduce the volume of sales without threatening its financial position. The higher the margin of safety, the better for the enterprise.

Let's build a general graph of the relationship between costs, production volume and profit, on which we will also depict the marginal income and the marginal safety factor.

Figure 7.1. The relationship between costs, production and profits.

In the graph, the difference between sales revenue and variable costs is the marginal income, which also shows the sum of fixed costs and sales profit. The segment of the line from the critical volume of proceeds (Vcr) to the actual volume (Vf) is the marginal safety factor.

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The production costs of an enterprise can be divided into two categories: variable and fixed costs. Variable costs depend on changes in the volume of production, while fixed costs remain fixed. Understanding the principle of classifying costs into fixed and variable is the first step to managing costs and improving production efficiency.

Break-even point determination methods

Knowing how to calculate variable costs can help you reduce your unit cost, making your business more profitable.

Steps

1 Calculation of variable costs

1 Classify costs into fixed and variable. Fixed costs are those costs that remain unchanged when the volume of production changes. For example, this could include the rent and salary of the management personnel. Whether you produce 1 unit of production per month or 10,000 units, these costs will remain approximately the same. Variable costs change with the change in production. For example, these include the cost of raw materials, packaging materials, shipping costs and wages of production workers. The more products you produce, the higher your variable costs will be.
Now that you understand the difference between fixed and variable costs, try to categorize all the costs of your business. Many of them will be easy to put into one category or another, while with others it will not be so simple.
Some (combined) costs that do not behave strictly like fixed or variable are difficult to classify. For example, the salary of employees may consist of a fixed salary and a percentage of commissions from sales. These costs are best broken down into fixed and variable components. In this case, sales commissions will be charged to variable costs.
2 Add together all the variable costs for the time period in question. Having identified all the variable costs, calculate their total value for the analyzed period of time. For example, your manufacturing operations are fairly simple and involve only three types of variable costs: raw materials, packaging and shipping costs, and worker wages. The sum of all these costs will represent the total variable costs.
Let's say that all your variable costs for the year in monetary terms will be as follows: 350,000 rubles for raw materials and materials, 200,000 rubles for packaging and shipping costs, 1,000,000 rubles for workers' wages.
The total variable costs for the year in rubles will be:

2 Application of the minimax calculation method

1 Identify the combined costs. Sometimes some costs cannot be clearly attributed to variable or fixed costs. These costs can vary depending on the volume of production, but can also be present when production is at a standstill or there are no sales. These costs are called combined costs. They can be broken down into fixed and variable components in order to more accurately determine the amount of fixed and variable costs.
An example of combined costs is employee wages, which consist of salary and commission percentage of sales. An employee receives a salary even in the absence of sales, but his commission depends on the volume of product sales. In this case, salary refers to fixed costs, and commission - to variable.
Combined costs can also occur in the wages of pieceworkers if you guarantee them a fixed amount of working hours in each billing period. The fixed amount of employment will refer to fixed costs, and all additional work time will be variable.
In addition, bonuses paid to employees can also be charged to combined costs.
A more complex example of combined costs would be utility bills. You will have to pay for electricity, water and gas even if there is no production. However, for the most part, these costs will depend on the volume of production. To break them down into constant and variable components, a slightly more complex calculation method is required.
2 Estimate costs according to the level of production activity. You can use the minimax method to break down the combined costs into AC and DC components. This method estimates the combined costs by month with the highest and lowest production volumes, and then compares them to identify the variable cost component. To start calculating, you must first identify the months with the highest and lowest production activity (production volume). For each month in question, record production activity as a measurable metric (for example, machine hours expended) and the corresponding combined cost.
Let's say your company uses a waterjet cutting machine to cut metal parts. For this reason, your company incurs variable costs of water for production, which depend on its volume. However, you also have constant water costs associated with maintaining your business (drinking, utilities, and so on). In general, your company's water costs are combined.
Suppose that your water bill was RUB 9,000 in the highest production month and that you spent 60,000 machine-hours on production. And in the month with the lowest production volume, the water bill was 8,000 rubles, while 50,000 machine-hours were spent.
3 Calculate the variable cost per unit of production (VCR). Find the difference between the two values of both indicators (costs and production) and determine the value of variable costs per unit of production. It is calculated as follows:
4 Determine the total variable costs. The value calculated above can be used to determine the variable portion of the combined cost. Multiply the variable cost per unit of production by the corresponding level of production activity. In this example, the calculation will be as follows:

3 Using variable cost information in practice

1 Estimate trends in variable costs. In most cases, increasing production will make each additional unit produced more profitable. This is because fixed costs are spread over more items. For example, if a business that produced 500,000 units of products spent RUB 50,000 on rent, these costs in the cost of each unit of production were RUB 0.10. If the volume of production doubles, then the rental costs per unit of production will already amount to 0.05 rubles, which will make it possible to get more profit from the sale of each unit of goods. That is, as sales proceeds increase, the cost of production also grows, but at a slower pace (ideally, in the cost of a unit of production, variable costs per unit should remain unchanged, and a component of fixed costs per unit of output should fall).
To understand whether the level of variable costs per unit of output remains constant, divide the total variable costs by revenue. This will give you an idea of how much of your variable costs is in revenue. If we carry out a dynamic analysis of this value by periods, then we can understand whether the variable costs per unit of production change in one direction or another.
For example, if the total variable costs for one year were 70,000 rubles and for the next - 80,000 rubles, while revenue was received in the amount of 1,000,000 and 1,150,000 rubles, respectively, you can make sure that the variable costs per unit of output for were quite stable over the years:
However, for companies with a higher proportion of fixed costs, it is much easier to take advantage of the economies of scale of production (an increase in production leads to a decrease in the cost per unit of production). This is due to the fact that the proceeds from the increase in the volume of production grows faster than the cost of production.
For example, a software company has significant fixed costs associated with software development and staff costs, but is able to increase sales without significantly increasing variable costs.
On the other hand, when sales decline, a company with a high proportion of variable costs will find it easier to cut production and remain in profit than a company with a high proportion of fixed costs (it will have to look for a way out and decide what to do with high fixed costs per unit of production) ...
A company with high fixed costs and low variable costs has high production leverage, which makes its profit or loss highly dependent on revenue. In fact, sales above a certain level turn out to be noticeably more profitable, and below it - noticeably more costly.
Ideally, the company should find a balance between risk and profitability by adjusting the level of fixed and variable costs.
3 Compare with companies in the same industry. First, calculate the variable cost per unit for your company. Then collect data on the value of this indicator from companies in the same industry. This will give you a starting point for assessing the performance of your company. Higher variable costs per unit of output may indicate that a company is less efficient than others; while a lower value of this indicator can be considered a competitive advantage.
The value of variable costs per unit of output above the industry average indicates that the company spends more funds and resources (labor, materials, utilities) on production than its competitors. This may indicate its low efficiency or the use of too expensive resources in production. In any case, it will not be as profitable as its competitors unless it cuts costs or increases prices.
On the other hand, a company that is able to produce the same goods at a lower cost realizes a competitive advantage in making more profit from a fixed market price.
This competitive advantage can be based on the use of cheaper materials, cheaper labor, or more efficient production facilities.
For example, a company that purchases cotton at a lower price than other competitors may produce shirts at lower variable costs and charge lower prices for the product.
Public companies publish their reports on their websites, as well as on the websites of exchanges where their securities are traded. Information about their variable costs can be obtained by analyzing the "statements of financial results" of these companies.
4 Conduct a break-even analysis. Variable costs (if known) combined with fixed costs can be used to calculate the break-even point for a new production project. The analyst is able to draw a graph of the dependence of fixed and variable costs on production volumes. With its help, he will be able to determine the most profitable level of production.
For example, if a company plans to start producing a new product, which requires a one-time investment of 100,000 rubles, you will want to know how much production will need to be produced and sold in order to recoup this investment and start making a profit. To do this, it will be necessary to add the amount of investment and other fixed costs with variable costs and subtract the total from revenue at different levels of production.
Mathematically, the break-even point can be calculated using the following formula:
For example, if the additional fixed costs in the course of production are 50,000 rubles (in addition to the original 100,000 rubles, which will give a total of 150,000 rubles of fixed costs), the variable costs will be 1 ruble per unit of product, and the selling price will be set at 4 rubles, the break-even point will be calculated as follows: which will result in 50,000 units of production.

Note that the calculations shown in the examples also apply to calculations in other types of currencies.

Submitted by: Nikitina Alla. 2017-11-11 18:26:20

Return back to Product costs

Variable and fixed costs are the two main types of costs. Each of them is determined depending on whether the total costs change in response to fluctuations in the selected cost type.

Variable costs are costs, the amount of which changes in proportion to the change in the volume of production. Variable costs include: raw materials and supplies, remuneration of production workers, purchased products and semi-finished products, fuel and electricity for production needs, etc.

In addition to direct production costs, some types of indirect costs are considered variable, such as: the cost of tools, auxiliary materials, etc. Per unit of production, variable costs remain constant, despite changes in production.

Example: With a volume of production equal to 1000 rubles. with a unit cost of 10 rubles, variable costs were 300 rubles, that is, based on the cost of a unit of production, they were 6 rubles. (300 rubles / 100 pcs. = 3 rubles).

As a result of the doubling of the volume of production, variable costs increased to 600 rubles, but in terms of the cost of a unit of production, they still amount to 6 rubles. (600 rubles / 200 pcs. = 3 rubles).

Fixed costs - costs, the value of which is almost independent of changes in the volume of production. Fixed costs include: salaries of management personnel, communication services, depreciation of fixed assets, lease payments, etc.

Service Temporarily Unavailable

Per unit of output, fixed costs change in parallel with changes in production.

Example: With a volume of production equal to 1000 rubles. with a unit cost of 10 rubles, fixed costs were 200 rubles, that is, based on the cost of a unit of production, they were 2 rubles. (200 rubles / 100 pcs. = 2 rubles).

As a result of doubling the volume of production, fixed costs remained at the same level, but they now amount to 1 ruble per unit cost. (2000 rub. / 200 pcs. = 1 rub.).

At the same time, while remaining independent of changes in the volume of production, fixed costs can change under the influence of other (often external) factors, such as price increases, etc.

However, such changes usually do not have a noticeable effect on the value of general business expenses, therefore, in planning, accounting and control, general business expenses are taken as constant.

It should also be noted that some of the general operating costs can still vary depending on the volume of production.

So, as a result of an increase in the volume of production, the wages of managers and their technical equipment (corporate communications, transport, etc.) may increase.

Total and average costs

Definition

Analysis of the behavior of total and average costs is one of the key stages in production planning and making appropriate management decisions. Control over them is important not only from the point of view of profitability control, but also for the formation of pricing policy.

Average variable costs

Average variable costs ( English Average Variable Cost, AVC) or variable costs per unit of output are calculated as the ratio of total variable costs to the volume of production.

Formula

where TVC is the total variable costs, Q is the volume of production.

Behavior

The behavior of average variable costs depends on various factors, so it is advisable to consider it using an example.

The table shows data on the costs of Integral LLC.

Typically, as production increases, average variable costs gradually decrease, reach a minimum, and then begin to gradually increase, as shown in the graph below.

The U-shape of the curve is explained by the principle of variable proportions.

While the company is increasing production as it approaches full capacity utilization, the average variable costs decrease as the efficiency of the production equipment increases.
When the full load is reached, the costs reach their minimum.
When the design capacity is exceeded, the efficiency of production equipment decreases due to increased wear and tear, which leads to an increase in average variable costs.

Average fixed costs

Average fixed costs ( English Average Fixed Cost, AFC) are inherently fixed costs per unit of output.

Formula

where TFC is total fixed costs, Q is the volume of production.

Behavior

Average fixed costs vary inversely with the volume of production.

What is a break-even point and how to calculate it

With an increase in the volume of production, they decrease, and with a decrease, on the contrary, they increase. Let's assume that the total fixed costs of the enterprise are $ 750,000. per quarter. With a quarterly production volume of 150 units. products, fixed costs per unit of production will amount to 5,000 USD, and with a volume of 250 units. already 3,000 USD This dependence is graphically demonstrated in the diagram.

As the volume of production increases, the average fixed costs gradually decrease, while they will never be equal to 0.

Average total costs

Average total costs ( English Average Total Cost, ATC) or unit costs are one of the key indicators of how efficiently a business is using available limited resources.

Formula

where TC is total costs, Q is the volume of production.

An alternative calculation formula is as follows.

Behavior

The behavior of the average total costs varies with the portion of the U-curve, as shown in the graph below.

Until full capacity utilization is reached, the average total costs are reduced as both average fixed and average variable costs are reduced in this section.

When the capacities are loaded above full, they can both increase and decrease. It depends on whether the average variable costs will rise faster than the average fixed costs will decline or not. For this reason, the point of full capacity utilization is not always the minimum of the average total costs.

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Variable cost examples

Conditional fixed and conditionally variable costs

In general, all types of costs can be divided into two main categories: fixed (conditionally fixed) and variable (conditionally variable). According to the legislation of the Russian Federation, the concept of fixed and variable costs is present in paragraph 1 of Article 318 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.

Conditional fixed costs(eng. total fixed costs) is an element of the break-even point model, which represents costs that do not depend on the volume of output, as opposed to variable costs, which add up to total costs.

In simple terms, these are expenses that remain relatively constant over the budget period, regardless of changes in sales volumes. Examples are: administrative expenses, expenses for rent and maintenance of buildings, depreciation of fixed assets, expenses for their repair, hourly wages, on-farm deductions, etc. In reality, these expenses are not constant in the literal sense of the word. They grow along with the increase in the scale of economic activity (for example, with the appearance of new products, businesses, branches) at a slower pace than the growth in sales volumes, or grow in leaps and bounds. Therefore, they are called conditionally constant.

This type of cost largely overlaps with overhead, or indirect costs associated with the main production, but not directly related to it.

Detailed examples of notional fixed costs:

Interest for obligations during the normal operation of the enterprise and the preservation of the volume of borrowed funds, a certain amount must be paid for their use, regardless of the volume of production, however, if the volume of production is so low that the enterprise is preparing for bankruptcy , these costs can be neglected and interest payments can be stopped
Corporate property taxes , since its value is quite stable, they are also mainly fixed costs, however, you can sell property to another company and take it on lease from it (form leasing ), thus reducing the payment of property tax
Depreciation deductions for a linear method of their accrual (evenly for the entire period of use of the property) in accordance with the chosen accounting policy, which, however, can be changed
Payment guards, watchmen , despite the fact that it can be reduced with a decrease in the number of workers and a decrease in the load on checkpoints , remains even with a simple enterprise, if it wants to keep its property
Payment lease depending on the type of production, the duration of the contract and the possibility of concluding a sublease agreement, it can act as a variable cost
The salary management personnel in the conditions of the normal functioning of the enterprise is independent of the volume of production, however, with the accompanying restructuring of the enterprise layoffs ineffective managers can also be reduced.

This includes: the cost of purchased goods, raw materials, components, some processing costs (for example, electricity), transportation costs, piecework wages, interest on loans and borrowings, etc. sales volume actually only exists for a certain period. The share of these costs in some period may change (suppliers will raise prices, the inflation rate of selling prices may not coincide with the inflation rate of these costs, etc.).

The main indicator by which it is possible to determine whether the costs are variable is their disappearance when production stops.

Variable cost examples

In accordance with IFRS, there are two groups of variable costs: production variable direct costs and production variable indirect costs.

Production variable direct costs- these are expenses that can be attributed directly to the cost of specific products on the basis of primary accounting data.

Manufacturing variable overhead costs- these are costs that are directly dependent or almost directly dependent on changes in the volume of activities, however, due to the technological features of production, they cannot or economically inexpediently be directly attributed to the manufactured products.

Examples variable direct costs are:

Raw materials and basic materials costs;
Energy, fuel costs;
Wages of workers engaged in the production of products, with charges for it.

Examples variables indirect costs are the costs of raw materials in complex industries. For example, when processing raw materials - coal - coke, gas, benzene, coal tar, ammonia are produced. By separating milk, skim milk and cream are obtained. It is possible to divide the costs of raw materials by types of products in these examples only indirectly.

Break even (BEP — break-even point) - the minimum volume of production and sales of products, at which the costs will be compensated by income, and with the production and sale of each subsequent unit of production, the enterprise begins to make a profit. The break-even point can be determined in units of production, in monetary terms, or in terms of the expected profit margin.

Break-even point in monetary terms- such a minimum amount of income at which all costs are fully paid off (in this case, the profit is zero).

BEP =* Sales proceeds

Or, which is the same thing BEP = = * P (see below for an explanation of the values)

Revenue and costs must relate to the same time period (month, quarter, half year, year). The break-even point will characterize the minimum allowable sales volume for the same period.

Let's look at the example of a company. A cost analysis will help you to visualize the BEP:

Break-even sales volume - 800 / (2600-1560) * 2600 = 2000 rubles. per month. The actual volume of sales is 2600 rubles / month. exceeds the break-even point, this is a good result for this company.

The breakeven point is almost the only indicator about which one can say: “The lower the better. The less you need to sell to start making a profit, the less likely you are to go bankrupt.

Break-even point in units of production- such a minimum amount of products at which the income from the sale of these products fully covers all the costs of its production.

Those. it is important to know not only the minimum allowable revenue from sales as a whole, but also the necessary contribution that each product should bring to the total profit box - that is, the minimum required number of sales of each type of product. For this, the break-even point is calculated in kind:

BEP =or BEP = =

The formula works flawlessly if the company produces only one type of product. In reality, such enterprises are rare. For companies with a large range of production, the problem arises of posting the total amount of fixed costs to individual types of products.

Fig. 1. Classic CVP Analysis of Cost, Profit and Sales Behavior

Additionally:

BEP (break-even point) - break even,

TFC (total fixed costs) is the value of fixed costs,

VC(unit variable cost) - the value of variable costs per unit of production,

P (unit sale price) - unit cost (sales),

C(unit contribution margin) - profit per unit of production without taking into account the share of fixed costs (the difference between the cost of production (P) and variable costs per unit of production (VC)).

CVP-analysis (from the English costs, volume, profit - costs, volume, profit) - analysis according to the "cost-volume-profit" scheme, an element of financial result control through the break-even point.

Overhead costs- the costs of doing business, which cannot be directly correlated with the production of a specific product and therefore are distributed in a certain way between the costs of all manufactured goods

Indirect costs- costs that, unlike direct ones, cannot be directly attributed to the manufacture of products. These include, for example, administrative and management costs, costs of staff training, costs in the production infrastructure, costs in the social sphere; they are distributed among various products in proportion to the justified base: the wages of production workers, the cost of materials used, the volume of work performed.

Depreciation deductions- an objective economic process of transferring the value of fixed assets as they wear out to the product or services produced with their help.

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One of the main features of financial management (as well as management accounting) is that it divides costs into two main types:

a) variables or margin;

b) permanent.

With such a classification, it is possible to estimate how much the total cost will change with an increase in production and sales of products. In addition, by evaluating the total income for various volumes of products sold, it is possible to measure the value of the expected profit and cost with an increase in the volume of sales. This method of management calculations is called break-even analysis or income assistance analysis.

Variable costs are costs that, with an increase or decrease in the volume of production and sales of products, respectively, increase or decrease (in total). Variable costs per unit of product produced or sold are the incremental costs incurred to create that unit. These variable costs are sometimes referred to as the marginal cost per unit of product produced or sold, and is the same for each additional unit. Graphical total, variable and fixed costs are shown in Fig. 7.

Fixed costs are costs, the amount of which is not affected by a change in the volume of production and sales of products. Examples of fixed costs are:

a) the salary of management personnel, which does not depend on the volume of products sold;

b) rent for premises;

c) depreciation of machines and mechanisms, calculated on a straight-line basis. It is charged regardless of whether the equipment is used partially, completely, or completely idle;

d) taxes (on property, land).

Rice. 7. Graphs of total (cumulative) costs

Fixed costs are constant costs over a given period of time. Over time, however, they increase. For example, the rent for a manufacturing facility for two years is double the rent for a year. Likewise, the depreciation charged on capital goods increases with the aging of those assets. For this reason, fixed costs are sometimes referred to as recurring costs, since they are constant over a specific period of time.

The overall level of fixed costs may vary. This happens when the volume of production and sales of products significantly increases or decreases (purchase of additional equipment - depreciation, recruiting new managers - salary, hiring additional premises - rent).

If the selling price of a unit of a certain type of product is known, then the gross proceeds from the sale of this type of product is equal to the product of the selling price of a unit of production by the number of units sold.

With an increase in the volume of sales of products per unit, revenue increases by the same or constant amount, and variable costs also increase by a constant amount. Therefore, the difference between the selling price and the variable costs for each unit of production must also be constant. This difference between the selling price and the unit variable costs is called the gross profit per unit of output.

Example

An economic entity sells a product for 40 rubles. per unit and expects to sell 15,000 units. There are two production technologies for this product.

A) The first technology is laborious, and variable costs per unit of output are 28 rubles. Fixed costs are equal to 100,000 rubles.

B) The second technology uses equipment that facilitates labor, and variable costs per unit of output are only 16 rubles. Fixed costs are equal to 250,000 rubles.

Which of the two technologies allows you to get the higher profit?

Solution

The break-even point is the volume of product sales, at which the proceeds from its sale are equal to the gross (total) costs, i.e. there is no profit, but there are no losses either. Gross margin analysis can be used to determine the break-even point, since if

revenue = variable costs + fixed costs, then

revenue - variable costs = fixed costs, i.e.

total gross profit = fixed costs.

To break even, the total gross profit must be sufficient to cover fixed costs. Since the total amount of gross profit is equal to the product of gross profit per unit of production by the number of units of production sold, the break-even point is determined as follows:

Example

If the variable costs per unit of the product are 12 rubles, and the proceeds from its sale are 15 rubles, then the gross profit is 3 rubles. If fixed costs are 30,000 rubles, then the break-even point is:

RUB 30,000 / 3 rub. = 10,000 units

Proof

The analysis of gross profit can be used to determine the volume of sales (sales) of products required to achieve the target profit for a given period.

Insofar as:

Revenue - Gross Cost = Profit

Revenue = Profit + Gross Cost

Revenue = Profit + Variable costs + Fixed costs

Revenue - Variable Cost = Profit + Fixed Cost

Gross profit = Profit + Fixed costs

The required amount of gross profit must be sufficient: a) to cover fixed costs; b) to obtain the required planned profit.

Example

If the product is sold for 30 rubles, and the unit variable costs are 18 rubles, then the gross profit per unit of production is 12 rubles. If the fixed costs are equal to 50,000 rubles, and the planned profit is 10,000 rubles, then the sales volume required to achieve the planned profit will be:

(50,000 + 10,000) / 125,000 units

Proof

Example

Estimated profit, break-even point and target profit

LLC "XXX" sells one product name. Variable costs per unit of production are 4 rubles. At a price of 10 rubles. demand will amount to 8,000 units, and fixed costs - 42,000 rubles. If the price of the product is reduced to 9 rubles, then the demand increases to 12,000 units, but fixed costs will increase to 48,000 rubles.

It is required to define:

a) the estimated profit at each selling price;

b) a break-even point at each selling price;

c) the volume of sales required to achieve the planned profit of 3,000 rubles, at each of the two prices.

b) To ensure break-even, gross profit must be equal to fixed costs. The break-even point is determined by dividing the sum of fixed costs by the amount of gross profit per unit of output:

RUB 42,000 / 6 rub. = 7,000 units

RUB 48,000 / 5 rub. = 9 600 units

c) The total gross profit required to achieve the planned profit of 3,000 rubles is equal to the sum of fixed costs and the planned profit:

Break-even point at a price of 10 rubles.

(42,000 + 3,000) / 6 = 7,500 units.

Break-even point at a price of 9 rubles.

(48,000 + 3,000) / 5 = 10,200 units.

Gross profit analysis is used in planning. Typical uses are as follows:

a) selection of the best selling price of the product;

b) the choice of the optimal technology for the production of a product, if one technology gives low variable and high fixed costs, and the other - higher variable costs per unit of output, but lower fixed costs.

These tasks can be solved by determining the following values:

a) the estimated gross profit and profit for each option;

b) break-even sales of products for each option;

c) the volume of sales of products required to achieve the planned profit;

d) the volume of product sales, at which two different production technologies give the same profit;

e) the volume of sales of products required to liquidate a bank overdraft or to reduce it to a certain level by the end of the year.

When solving problems, it is necessary to remember that the volume of sales of products (i.e. the demand for products at a certain price) is difficult to predict accurately, and the analysis of the estimated profit and break-even volume of sales of products should be aimed at taking into account the consequences of failure to meet the planned indicators.

Example

A new company TTT is set up to manufacture the patented product. Company directors are faced with a choice: which of the two production technologies to prefer?

Option A

The company purchases parts, assembles finished products from them, and then sells them. Estimated costs are:

Option B

The company purchases additional equipment that allows performing some technological operations in the company's own premises. Estimated costs are:

The maximum possible production capacity for both options is 10,000 units. in year. Regardless of the achieved sales volume, the company intends to sell the product for 50 rubles. for a unit.

Required

Analyze the financial results of each of the options (as far as the available information allows) with the corresponding calculations and schemes.

Note: taxes are not included.

Solution

Option A gives higher variable costs per unit of output, but also lower fixed costs than Option B. Higher fixed costs for Option B, including additional depreciation (for more expensive premises and new equipment) and interest costs on bonds, since option B makes the company financially dependent. The above solution does not address the concept of debt, although that is part of the complete answer.

The estimated output is not given, so the uncertainty of the demand for the product should be an important element of the solution. However, it is known that the maximum demand is limited by production capacity (10,000 units).

Therefore, you can define:

a) the maximum profit for each option;

b) a break-even point for each option.

a) if the need reaches 10,000 units.

Option B gives a higher profit with a larger volume of sales.

b) to ensure break-even:

Break-even point for Option A:

RUB 80,000 / 16 rub. = 5,000 units

Break-even point for option B

RUB 185,000 / 30 rub. = 6 167 units.

The breakeven point for Option A is lower, which means that with an increase in demand, the profit for Option A will be obtained much faster. In addition, with small volumes of demand, option A gives a higher profit or a lower loss.

c) if option A is more profitable for low sales volumes, and option B is profitable for large volumes, then there must be some intersection point at which both options have the same total profit with the same total sales of products. We can determine this volume.

There are two methods for calculating the volume of sales for the same profit:

Graphic;

Algebraic.

The most obvious way to solve the problem is to plot the dependence of profit on sales volume. This graph shows the profit or loss for each sales volume for each of the two options. It is based on the fact that profit grows evenly (straight-line); gross profit for each additionally sold unit of production is a constant value. In order to build a straight-line profit chart, you need to set aside two points and connect them.

With zero sales, gross profit is zero, and the company suffers a loss in an amount equal to fixed costs (Figure 8).

Algebraic solution

Let the sales volume for which both options give the same profit is x units. The total profit is the total gross profit minus fixed costs, and the total gross profit is the gross profit per unit of output multiplied by x units.

Option A has a profit of 16 NS - 80 000

Rice. 8. Graphic solution

Option B has a profit of 30 NS - 185 000

Since with the volume of sales NS units the profit is the same, then

16NS - 80 000 = 30NS - 185 000;

NS= 7 500 units.

Proof

Analysis of financial results shows that, due to the higher fixed costs for option B (partly due to the cost of paying interest on the loan), option A breaks even much faster and is more profitable until the volume of sales of 7,500 units. If the demand is expected to exceed 7,500 units, then option B will be more profitable. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully study and assess the demand for this product.

Since the results of demand assessments can rarely be considered reliable, it is recommended to analyze the difference between the planned sales volume and the break-even volume (the so-called "safety zone"). This difference shows how much the actual volume of sales of products can be less than planned without a loss for the enterprise.

Example

An economic entity sells a product at a price of 10 rubles. per unit, and variable costs are 6 rubles. Fixed costs are equal to 36,000 rubles. The planned sales volume of products is 10,000 units.

The planned profit is determined as follows:

Break even:

36,000 / (10 - 6) = 9,000 units.

"Safety zone" is the difference between the planned volume of sales of products (10,000 units) and the break-even volume (9,000 units), i.e. 1,000 units As a rule, this value is expressed as a percentage of the planned volume. Thus, if in this example the actual sales volume is less than the planned one by more than 10%, the company will not be able to break even and incur a loss.

The most difficult analysis of gross profit is the calculation of the sales volume required to liquidate a bank overdraft (or to reduce it to a certain level) within a certain period (year).

Example

An economic entity buys a machine for the production of a new product for 50,000 rubles. The product price structure is as follows:

The machine is purchased entirely through an overdraft facility. In addition, all other financial needs are also covered by an overdraft facility.

What should be the annual volume of products sold to cover the bank overdraft (by the end of the year) if:

a) all sales are made on credit, and debtors pay them within two months;

b) stocks of finished products are stored in the warehouse for one month prior to sale and are valued in the warehouse at variable costs (as work in progress);

c) suppliers of raw materials and supplies provide a business entity with a monthly loan.

In this example, a bank overdraft is used to purchase a machine and also to cover general operating costs (all of which are in cash). Depreciation is not a cash expense, therefore the amount of depreciation does not affect the amount of the overdraft. In the manufacture and sale of the product, variable costs are incurred, but they are covered by the proceeds from the sale of products, as a result of which the amount of gross profit is formed.

The value of the gross profit per unit of the product is 12 rubles. This figure may suggest that the overdraft can be covered with a sales volume of 90,000 / 12 = 7,500 units. However, this is not the case, since the build-up of working capital is ignored here.

A) Debtors pay for the purchased goods on average after two months, therefore, out of every 12 units sold, at the end of the year, two remain unpaid. Consequently, on average, out of every 42 rubles. sales (unit price) one-sixth (RUB 7) at the end of the year will be outstanding receivables. The amount of this debt will not reduce the bank overdraft.

B) Likewise, at the end of the year, there will be a month's stock of finished products on the hoard. The cost of producing these products is also an investment in working capital. This investment requires cash, which increases the amount of the overdraft. Since this increase in inventories is a monthly sales volume, it is, on average, equal to one-twelfth of the variable cost of producing a unit of output (RUB 2.5) sold per year.

C) The increase in accounts payable compensates for the investment in working capital, since at the end of the year, due to the provision of a monthly loan, on average, out of every 24 rubles spent on the purchase of raw materials and materials (24 rubles - material costs per unit of production), 2 rubles ... will not be paid.

Let's calculate the average cash receipts per unit of production:

To cover the cost of the machine and operating costs and, thus, eliminate the overdraft for the year, the volume of product sales must be

RUB 90,000 / RUB 4.5 (cash) = 20,000 units

With an annual sales volume of 20,000 units. profit will be:

The effect on cash receipts is best shown using the example of the balance of changes in the cash position:

In an aggregated form in the form of a report on the sources and use of funds:

The profits are used to finance the purchase of the machine and the investment in working capital. Therefore, by the end of the year, the following change in the monetary position took place: from overdraft to “no change” position - that is, the overdraft has only been repaid.

When solving such problems, a number of features should be taken into account:

- depreciation costs should be excluded from fixed costs;

- investments in working capital are not fixed costs and do not affect the break-even analysis at all;

- make (on paper or mentally) a report on the sources and use of funds;

- expenses that increase the amount of the overdraft are:

- purchase of equipment and other fixed assets;

- annual fixed costs, excluding depreciation.

The gross margin ratio is the ratio of the gross margin to the selling price. It is also called the "revenue-to-earnings ratio". Since the unit variable costs are a constant value and, therefore, at a given sales price, the gross profit per unit of production is also constant, the gross profit ratio is constant for all values of the volume of sales.

Example

The unit variable costs for the product are 4 rubles, and its selling price is 10 rubles. Fixed costs are 60,000 rubles.

The gross profit ratio will be

RUB 6 / 10 rub. = 0.6 = 60%

This means that for every 1 rub. the income received from the sale of the value of the gross profit is 60 kopecks. To ensure break-even, gross profit must be equal to fixed costs (60,000 rubles). Since the above ratio is 60%, the gross proceeds from the sale of products required to ensure breakeven will amount to 60,000 rubles. / 0.6 = 100,000 rubles.

Thus, the gross margin ratio can be used to calculate the break-even point

The gross margin ratio can also be used to calculate the volume of sales required to achieve a given profit margin. If an economic entity wanted to make a profit in the amount of 24,000 rubles, then the volume of sales should have been the following:

Proof

If the problem gives sales revenue and variable costs, but does not give the sales price or unit variable costs, you should use the gross margin method.

Example

Using the gross margin ratio

An economic entity has prepared a budget for its activities for the next year:

The directors of the company are not satisfied with this forecast and believe that it is necessary to increase sales.

What level of product sales is required to achieve a given profit value of 100,000 rubles?

Solution

Since neither the selling price nor the unit variable costs are known, the gross profit should be used to solve the problem. This ratio has a constant value for all sales volumes. It can be determined from the information available.

Analysis of the decisions made

Analysis of the short-term decisions made implies the choice of one of several possible options. For example:

a) selection of the optimal production plan, nomenclature, sales volumes, prices, etc .;

b) choosing the best of the mutually exclusive options;

c) making a decision on the advisability of conducting a specific type of activity (for example, whether an order should be accepted, whether an additional work shift is needed, whether to close a department or not, etc.).

Decisions are made in financial planning when it is necessary to formulate production and commercial plans of the enterprise. Analysis of the decisions made in financial planning often comes down to the application of methods (principles) of variable calculation. The main task of this method is to determine which costs and incomes will be affected by the decision made, i.e. what specific costs and revenues are relevant to each of the proposed options.

Relevant costs are the costs of the future period that are reflected in the cash flow as a direct consequence of the decision made. In the decision-making process, only relevant costs should be taken into account, since it is assumed that future profits will ultimately be maximized provided that the "cash profit" of the economic entity, i.e. cash income received from the sale of products minus cash costs for the production and sale of products are also maximized.

Costs that are not relevant include:

a) past costs, i.e. money already spent;

b) future costs arising from individual decisions previously made;

c) costs of a non-monetary nature, for example, depreciation.

Relevant unit costs are typically the variable (or marginal) costs of that unit.

It is assumed that in the end, the profit comes from cash receipts. Declared profits and cash receipts for any period of time are not the same thing. This is due to various reasons, for example, the time intervals for granting loans or the peculiarities of accounting for depreciation. Ultimately, the profit received gives a net inflow of an equal amount of cash. Consequently, in accounting for decision-making, cash receipts are treated as a means of measuring profit.

The "price of a chance" is the income that the company discards, preferring one option over the most profitable alternative. Suppose, as an example, that there are three mutually exclusive options: A, B and C. The net profit for these options is 80, 100 and 90 rubles, respectively.

Since you can choose only one option, option B seems to be the most profitable, since it gives the greatest profit (20 rubles).

The decision in favor of B will be made not only because he gives a profit of 100 rubles, but also because he gives 20 rubles. more profit than the next most profitable option. The "price of a chance" can be defined as "the amount of income that a company sacrifices in favor of an alternative."

What happened in the past cannot be returned. Management decisions affect only the future. Therefore, in the decision-making process, managers only need information about future expenses and income, which will be influenced by the decisions made, because they can already influence past costs and profits. Historical costs in decision-making terminology are called sunk costs, which:

a) either have already been accrued as direct costs for the manufacture and sale of products for the previous reporting period;

b) either will be charged in subsequent reporting periods, despite the fact that they have already been produced (or the decision on their production has already been made). An example of such costs is depreciation. After the acquisition of property, plant and equipment, depreciation can be charged over several years, but these costs are irrecoverable.

Relevant costs and revenues are deferred income and expenses that arise from the choice of a particular option. They also include income that could have been earned by choosing another option, and which the entity has abandoned. The "price of a chance" is never shown in financial statements, but it is often mentioned in decision documents.

One of the most common problems in the decision-making process is making decisions in a situation where there are not enough resources to meet potential demand and it is necessary to decide how to use the available resources most effectively.

The limiting factor, if any, should be determined when drawing up the annual plan. Therefore, decisions on the limiting factor are more common than ad hoc actions. But even in this case, the concept of "the price of a chance" appears in the decision-making process.

The limiting factor can be only one (different from the maximum demand), or there can be several limited resources, two or more of which can set the maximum achievable level of activity. To solve problems with more than one limiting factor, one should use operations research methods (linear programming).

Limiting factor solutions

Examples of limiting factors are:

a) the volume of sales of products: there is a limit to the demand for products;

b) labor force (total number and by specialties): there is a shortage of labor force to produce a volume of products sufficient to meet demand;

c) material resources: there is not a sufficient amount of materials to manufacture products in the amount necessary to meet demand;

d) production capacity: the productivity of technological equipment is insufficient to manufacture the required volume of products;

e) financial resources: there is not enough money to pay the necessary production costs.

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Conditional fixed costs(eng. total fixed costs

What does variable cost (formula) include?

Therefore, they are called conditionally constant.

Interest bankruptcy
leasing
Depreciation
Payment guards, watchmen checkpoints
Payment lease
The salary management personnel layoffs

(eng. variable costs

Variable cost examples

Examples variable direct costs are:

Energy, fuel costs;

Examples variables indirect

Break even (BEP — break-even point

BEP =* Sales proceeds

Or, which is the same thing BEP = = * P

BEP =or BEP = =

Additionally:

BEP (break-even point) - break even,

TFC (total fixed costs

VC(unit variable cost

P (unit sale price

C(unit contribution margin

CVP

Overhead costs

Indirect costs

Depreciation deductions

Variable costs: what they are, how to find them and calculate them

Marginal Cost Formula

The concept of marginal cost

The marginal cost formula is calculated by the ratio of the increase in total costs to the increase in the quantity of goods. Also, the formula for marginal costs is determined by the ratio of the increase in variable costs (the change in the sum of total costs is equal to the change in the variable costs of each additional unit) to the increase in the quantity of goods.

Types of costs

Each enterprise, in its quest to obtain the maximum profit, bears the costs of acquiring production factors, while striving to achieve the level of production of a given volume of products with the lowest costs.

The enterprise cannot influence the price of resources, but knowing the dependence of the volume of production on the number of variable costs, costs are calculated.

In accordance with the organization, expenses are classified into groups:

Individual expenses for a specific company,
Public expenditures the costs of producing a certain type of product, which are borne by the entire economy,
Opportunity costs,
Production costs, etc.

Also, costs are classified into 2 groups:

Fixed costs include investments to ensure stable production. This type of cost is constant and does not depend on the production volume;
Variable costs include costs that are subject to easy adjustment, without causing damage to the activities of the enterprise (change in accordance with the volume of production).

Marginal Cost Formula

Marginal cost is the change in the total cost of the enterprise in the process of producing each additional unit of goods.

The marginal cost formula is as follows:

MS = TC / Q

Here TS is an increase (change) in total costs;

Q - increase (change) in the volume of goods output.

To calculate the increase in total costs, the following formula is used:

TC = TC2 TC1

To calculate the change in output, the following equation is used:

Q = Q2 Q1

Substituting these equalities in the marginal cost formula, we get the following formula:

MS = (TC2 TC1) / (Q2 Q1)

Here Q1, T1 are the initial amount of the issue and the corresponding amount of costs,

Q2 and ТС2 - the new output quantity and the corresponding cost.

Value of marginal cost

The calculation of the value of marginal costs makes it possible to determine the degree of benefit from the production of each additional unit of goods.

Marginal cost is an important economic tool that determines the strategy of production development. The level of marginal costs makes it possible to show the volume of production at which the enterprise needs to stop to obtain the maximum amount of profit.

In the event of an increase in production and sales, the costs of the enterprise change as follows:

Uniform variation suggests that marginal costs are constant, equal to variable costs per unit of output;
Accelerated change reflects an increase in marginal cost with increasing output;
Slowed-down change shows a decrease in the marginal costs of a firm if its costs of purchased raw materials decrease with an increase in output.

Examples of problem solving

Search Lectures

Variable cost examples

Conditional fixed and conditionally variable costs

Conditional fixed costs(eng.

Variable cost examples

total fixed costs) is an element of the break-even point model, which represents costs that do not depend on the volume of output, as opposed to variable costs, which add up to total costs.

This type of cost largely overlaps with overhead, or indirect costs associated with the main production, but not directly related to it.

Detailed examples of notional fixed costs:

Interest for obligations during the normal operation of the enterprise and the preservation of the volume of borrowed funds, a certain amount must be paid for their use, regardless of the volume of production, however, if the volume of production is so low that the enterprise is preparing for bankruptcy , these costs can be neglected and interest payments can be stopped
Corporate property taxes , since its value is quite stable, they are also mainly fixed costs, however, you can sell property to another company and take it on lease from it (form leasing ), thus reducing the payment of property tax
Depreciation deductions for a linear method of their accrual (evenly for the entire period of use of the property) in accordance with the chosen accounting policy, which, however, can be changed
Payment guards, watchmen , despite the fact that it can be reduced with a decrease in the number of workers and a decrease in the load on checkpoints , remains even with a simple enterprise, if it wants to keep its property
Payment lease depending on the type of production, the duration of the contract and the possibility of concluding a sublease agreement, it can act as a variable cost
The salary management personnel in the conditions of the normal functioning of the enterprise is independent of the volume of production, however, with the accompanying restructuring of the enterprise layoffs ineffective managers can also be reduced.

Variable (conditionally variable) costs(eng. variable costs) - these are expenses that change in direct proportion in accordance with an increase or decrease in total turnover (sales revenue). These costs are associated with the operations of the enterprise for the purchase and delivery of products to consumers. This includes: the cost of purchased goods, raw materials, components, some processing costs (for example, electricity), transportation costs, piecework wages, interest on loans and borrowings, etc. sales volume actually only exists for a certain period. The share of these costs in some period may change (suppliers will raise prices, the inflation rate of selling prices may not coincide with the inflation rate of these costs, etc.).

The main indicator by which it is possible to determine whether the costs are variable is their disappearance when production stops.

Variable cost examples

In accordance with IFRS, there are two groups of variable costs: production variable direct costs and production variable indirect costs.

Production variable direct costs- these are expenses that can be attributed directly to the cost of specific products on the basis of primary accounting data.

Examples variable direct costs are:

Raw materials and basic materials costs;
Energy, fuel costs;
Wages of workers engaged in the production of products, with charges for it.

Break-even point in monetary terms- such a minimum amount of income at which all costs are fully paid off (in this case, the profit is zero).

BEP =* Sales proceeds

Or, which is the same thing BEP = = * P (see below for an explanation of the values)

Revenue and costs must relate to the same time period (month, quarter, half year, year). The break-even point will characterize the minimum allowable sales volume for the same period.

Let's look at the example of a company. A cost analysis will help you to visualize the BEP:

Break-even sales volume - 800 / (2600-1560) * 2600 = 2000 rubles. per month. The actual volume of sales is 2600 rubles / month. exceeds the break-even point, this is a good result for this company.

The breakeven point is almost the only indicator about which one can say: “The lower the better. The less you need to sell to start making a profit, the less likely you are to go bankrupt.

Break-even point in units of production- such a minimum amount of products at which the income from the sale of these products fully covers all the costs of its production.

BEP =or BEP = =

Fig. 1. Classic CVP Analysis of Cost, Profit and Sales Behavior

Additionally:

BEP (break-even point) - break even,

TFC (total fixed costs) is the value of fixed costs,

VC(unit variable cost) - the value of variable costs per unit of production,

P (unit sale price) - unit cost (sales),

Depreciation deductions- an objective economic process of transferring the value of fixed assets as they wear out to the product or services produced with their help.

Assessing the behavior of production costs

The dependence of production costs on the level of business activity of the enterprise characterizes the behavior of costs. Business activity an enterprise is determined by the level of use of its production capacity, labor productivity, and the introduction of new technologies. To assess the behavior of costs, the production capacity of the enterprise is of the greatest importance. The production capacity is the volume of products that the enterprise produces or will be able to produce in the reporting or in the future periods.

There are three types of production capacity: theoretical, practical and normal.

Theoretical production capacity is the maximum output that a company can achieve if all machines and equipment are operating at optimum performance without downtime. In practice, this indicator is used only in analytical calculations to assess the level of utilization of production capacity.

Practical production capacity is the theoretical capacity less operational downtime for equipment, business interruptions, and other reasonable downtime.

Normal capacity is the average annual output required to meet sales needs. When assessing cost behavior, the normal capacity of the plant is used.

To assess the behavior of costs, they are classified into:

- permanent;

- variables;

- conditionally constant.

In addition, it is calculated cost responsiveness:

where y - the rate of increase in costs for a certain period;

NS - the rate of growth of the business activity of the enterprise.

It is believed that fixed costs remain unchanged over a short period of time. If To p. h.= 0, then the costs are fixed.

Variable costs vary depending on the volume of production. They are classified as proportional, progressive, and digressive.

Proportional costs- costs that change in direct proportion to the volume of production. If To p. h.= 1, then the costs are proportional.

Progressive costs - costs, the growth of which outstrips the growth of production. If To p. h.

> 1, then the costs are considered progressive.

Digressive- these are costs, the growth rate of which is lower than the growth rate of production. If 0<To p. h.<1, то это дигрессивные затраты.

Each cost element corresponds to a certain schedule of cost behavior:

1.proportional 2.progressive 3.digressive

In real life, only fixed or variable costs are rarely encountered. In most cases, the costs are conditionally permanent (conditional variables). These costs contain both variable and fixed components. These costs include entertainment expenses, advertising costs, compensation for the use of personal transport, certain types of taxes, etc. Therefore, conditionally fixed costs can be presented in the form of a formula:

y = a + b*NS,

where at- the total amount of conditionally fixed costs;

a- fixed part of the costs;

v- cost responsiveness;

NS - volume of production (indicator of business activity).

If there is no constant part in this formula, then this type of cost is variable. If the response rate of costs for this item takes zero value, then these costs are permanent.

Similar information:

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Search Lectures

Variable cost examples

Conditional fixed and conditionally variable costs

This type of cost largely overlaps with overhead, or indirect costs associated with the main production, but not directly related to it.

Detailed examples of notional fixed costs:

Interest for obligations during the normal operation of the enterprise and the preservation of the volume of borrowed funds, a certain amount must be paid for their use, regardless of the volume of production, however, if the volume of production is so low that the enterprise is preparing for bankruptcy , these costs can be neglected and interest payments can be stopped
Corporate property taxes , since its value is quite stable, they are also mainly fixed costs, however, you can sell property to another company and take it on lease from it (form leasing ), thus reducing the payment of property tax
Depreciation deductions for a linear method of their accrual (evenly for the entire period of use of the property) in accordance with the chosen accounting policy, which, however, can be changed
Payment guards, watchmen , despite the fact that it can be reduced with a decrease in the number of workers and a decrease in the load on checkpoints , remains even with a simple enterprise, if it wants to keep its property
Payment lease depending on the type of production, the duration of the contract and the possibility of concluding a sublease agreement, it can act as a variable cost
The salary management personnel in the conditions of the normal functioning of the enterprise is independent of the volume of production, however, with the accompanying restructuring of the enterprise layoffs ineffective managers can also be reduced.

The main indicator by which it is possible to determine whether the costs are variable is their disappearance when production stops.

Variable cost examples

In accordance with IFRS, there are two groups of variable costs: production variable direct costs and production variable indirect costs.

Production variable direct costs- these are expenses that can be attributed directly to the cost of specific products on the basis of primary accounting data.

Examples variable direct costs are:

Raw materials and basic materials costs;
Energy, fuel costs;
Wages of workers engaged in the production of products, with charges for it.

Break-even point in monetary terms- such a minimum amount of income at which all costs are fully paid off (in this case, the profit is zero).

BEP =* Sales proceeds

Or, which is the same thing BEP = = * P (see below for an explanation of the values)

Revenue and costs must relate to the same time period (month, quarter, half year, year). The break-even point will characterize the minimum allowable sales volume for the same period.

Let's look at the example of a company. A cost analysis will help you to visualize the BEP:

Break-even sales volume - 800 / (2600-1560) * 2600 = 2000 rubles. per month. The actual volume of sales is 2600 rubles / month. exceeds the break-even point, this is a good result for this company.

The breakeven point is almost the only indicator about which one can say: “The lower the better. The less you need to sell to start making a profit, the less likely you are to go bankrupt.

Break-even point in units of production- such a minimum amount of products at which the income from the sale of these products fully covers all the costs of its production.

BEP =or BEP = =

The formula works flawlessly if the company produces only one type of product. In reality, such enterprises are rare.

Variable costs in the enterprise

For companies with a large range of production, the problem arises of posting the total amount of fixed costs to individual types of products.

Fig. 1. Classic CVP Analysis of Cost, Profit and Sales Behavior

Additionally:

BEP (break-even point) - break even,

TFC (total fixed costs) is the value of fixed costs,

VC(unit variable cost) - the value of variable costs per unit of production,

P (unit sale price) - unit cost (sales),

Depreciation deductions- an objective economic process of transferring the value of fixed assets as they wear out to the product or services produced with their help.

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2.5.3. Calculation of conditionally fixed and variable costs of the cost of coal

OBVMADBEFUS PVTBFOBS ABCHYUYNPUFSH.

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FELHEYE VBFTBFS UYUIFBAFUS RPUFPSOSOSCHNY, EUMY POI OE TEBZYTHAF ABOUT YUNNEOOYE PVIAENB DESFEMSHOPUFY (LPZHYGYEOF VMBUFYUCHEOPUETSMAF YBUFYUCHEOPUEFY) oBYUYOBS U OHMS RP NETE TPUFB PVIAENB DESFEMSHOPUFY POI KHCHEMYUYUYCHBAFUS CH PFOPUIFEMSHOP VPMSHYEK RTPRPTGYY, RPFPNKH RPMHYUIMY OBUCHBOYE RTPZTEUUYCHOSHI RETENEOOSHI JBFTBF(LPZHZHYGYEOF VMBUFYUOPUFY VPSHYE EDYOYGSCH). DYOBNYLB UHNNBTOSHI Y HDEMSHOSHI RTPZTEUUYCHOSHI RETENEOOSHI YDETTZEL RTEDUFBCHMEOB ABOUT TYU. 8.3. ABFEN RP NETE KHCHEMYUEOIS PVIAENB DESFEMSHOPUFY RETENEOOSHE YDEETTSLI YENEOSAFUS CH PDYOBLPSCHCHI U OYN RTPRPTGYSI, Y YI OBSCHCHBAF RTPRPTGYPOBMSHOSCHNY RETENEOUSHCHNY JBFTBFBNY(LPZHZHYGYEOF VMBUFYUOPUFY TBCHEO EDYOYGE). yI RPCHEDEOYE YMMAUFTYTKHEFUS ABOUT TYU. 8.4.

tyu. 8.3. DYOBNILB RTPZTEUUYCHOSHI RETENEOOSHIJBFTBF:

B) UHNNBTOSCHI; C) HDEMSHOSHI

tyu. 8.4. DYOBNYLB RTPRPTGYPOBMSHOSHI RETENEOOSHI JBFTBF:

B) UHNNBTOSCHI; C) HDEMSHOSHI

u DEKUFCHYEN JBLFPTB LLPOPNY ABOUT NBUYFBWE RTPYCHPDUFCHB TPUF RETENEOOSHI YDEETTSEL UVBOPCHYFUS VPMEE NEDMEOOSCHN, YUEN TPUF PVIAENB DESFEMSHOPUFY. ьФЙ ЪБФТБФЩ RPMHYUIMY OBCHBOYE DEETEUYCHOSHI RETENEOOSHI YDETZEL(LPZHZHYGYEOF BMBUFYUOPUFY NEOSHY EDYOYGSCH). zTBZHYLY RPCHEDEOYS DEZTEUUYCHOSHI VBFTBF - UPCHPLHROSHI Y CH TBUYUEFE ABOUT EDYOYGH RTPDKHLGYY - RTYCHEDOSCH ABOUT TYU. 8.5.

tyu. 8.5. DYOBNYLB DEZTEUYCHOSHI RETENEOOSHI VBFTBF:

B) UHNNBTOSCHI; C) HDEMSHOSHI

rTECHDEOOSHE TYUKHOLY RPLBSCHBAF, UFP NETSDKH DYOBNYLPK BVUPMAFOSCHI PFOPUIFEMSHOSHCHI CHEMYUYO JBFTBF UHEUFCHCHHEF JOBYUIFEMSHOGB TB. OBRTYNET, HDEMSHOSH RPUFSOOCHBFTBFSCH RTECHTBEBAFUS CH TBOPCHYDOPUFSH DEZTEUYCHOSHI RETENEOSCHI VBFTBF, B HDEMSHOSHE RTPRPTGYPSHCHENBFSHCH RTCHTBEBAFUSCH NETSDKH FEN LPMYUEUFCHP YUYUFP RETENEOOSHI YMY YUYUFP RPUFPSOOSHI JBFTBF OE FBL HC CHEMYLP. uMEDPCHBFESHOP, DTHZYN CHBTSOSCHN BURELFPN FEPTYY LMBUYZHILBGY JBFTBF ABOUT RPUPSOOSCH Y RETENEOOSCH SCHMSEFUS RTPVMENB HUMPCHMEUPUPFYDBY.

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