Samarkand is a contemporary of Ancient Rome: the age of its cultural lower layers dates back to the 1st millennium BC.
At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, a new heyday of Samarkand began. This happened during the reign of the great conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who decided to make Samarkand the capital of his empire. Timur wanted to make his capital unattainably beautiful and grandiose, surpassing all other cities in the world. Therefore, the villages around Samarkand received new names and henceforth were called like this: Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo - the greatest cities in the world should have seemed like villages in comparison with the new capital of Timur. Thirteen gardens were rustling around Samarkand, the largest of them was so vast that once (as the ancient chronicles tell) the architect's horse got lost there and they were looking for it for a whole month.
The architectural ensemble of Samarkand, stretching from the Iron Gate to the east in the form of a street, was built on the sides with ceremonial tombs and religious buildings. On the outskirts of Samarkand, on the slope of the Afrasiab hill, there are the Shakhi-Zinda mausoleums. Nobody planned or designed this magical street, the ensemble arose by itself, and it was built for hundreds of years - one mausoleum after another. "Shahi-Zinda" means "living king", whose cult existed long before Islam came here.
Timur had many wives, but only one favorite - the beautiful Bibi-khanym. The great ruler was on a long campaign when she gathered the best architects of Samarkand, who, at the hour indicated by the stars, began to build a mosque.
The mosque was built by a young architect who, captivated by the beauty of Bibi-khanim, became a victim of insane and unrequited love. The slender walls of the mosque are already shining with beautiful glaze, its dome already competes with the vault of heaven, it remains only to close the portal arch. But the loving architect hesitates, because the completion of the work means separation from Bibi-khanim.
Timur himself is buried in the Gur-Emir mausoleum, which is located near a small pond in Registan Square. At first, Gur-Emir was intended for the burial of Mohamed Sultan, Timur's beloved grandson, but now Timur himself, his sons and another grandson, the great medieval scientist Ulugbek, are buried here, under whom the mausoleum turned into the family tomb of the Timurids. The blue ribbed dome of the mausoleum rises to a height of 40 meters, wooden doors inlaid with ivory lead to the ceremonial hall ... The sun's rays, breaking through the marble lattices, fall in stripes on eight tombstones, the graves themselves are below - in the underground.
The central square of old Samarkand is Registan; streets are approaching from all sides, radially crossing the territory of the Old City. In ancient times, a powerful canal flowed through the area, leaving a mass of sandy deposits. Sandy sediments probably gave the name to this place, since "Registan" literally means "place of sand", "sandy field".
Until the 15th century, the Registan was a large trade and craft area, but then its importance as a marketplace receded into the background. During the reign of Khan Ulugbek, who was the ruler of Samarkand from 1409 to 1447, the Registan became an official square: solemn reviews of troops began to take place here, khan's decrees were announced, etc.
At the time of Ulugbek, Samarkand was the center of the scientific life of Central Asia, famous mathematicians, astronomers, historians came here ... In the madrasah, for which Ulugbek personally selected teachers, and in his observatory, scientists touched the secrets of science. Merchants and artisans, pilgrims and poets, wanderers and diplomats - all aspired here, all roads led to the "precious pearl of the world" - the sparkling city of Samarkand.
The device of floors by combining floor coverings of different properties is one of the most popular design techniques used, as a rule, for space zoning. The combination of laminate and ceramic tile floors within the same room allows not only to diversify the interior, making it brighter and more expressive, but also gives a significant gain in strength, durability and other performance characteristics. Most often, such solutions are found in the design of living rooms, kitchens and hallways and serve to divide the premises into living and working areas.
At the same time, joining laminate with tiles is a serious technical problem, which can be solved in various ways:
- without the use of additional materials;
- using construction foams, mastics and silicone sealants;
- using a cork condenser;
- with the help of transitional sills.
Without the use of additional materials
This method is used to design single-level joints of complex configuration and requires a lot of patience and accuracy. First, a careful cutting and cutting of materials is performed according to pre-prepared templates.
Then they are fixed on the rough floor in compliance with the general rules of fastening and thorough grouting of the joint seams. Joining a laminate with a tile without the use of additional materials allows you to beautifully design any curved joint, no matter how complex it is.
Using joint foams and polymer sealants
Butt joints of any shape, width and depth can be elegantly decorated with construction foams, mastics and silicone sealants. For this, there is a huge assortment of improvised means and a rich selection of color combinations, but this solution has a significant drawback associated with the peculiarity of laying the laminate.
Since the laminate needs some space for expansion, during installation the boards are not attached to the base and can move, taking the optimal position for themselves. Building foams and sealants will eventually solidify and seal the joints tightly, which can deform the floor.
With a cork expansion joint
High-quality joining of the laminate with the tiles with the formation of a neat seam is carried out using cork expansion joints. The cork shrinks perfectly and recovers on its own, so there is no need to worry about the arrangement of technological gaps.
In order for the cork to lay down beautifully, the edges of the laminate and tiles along the cut line must be perfectly flat, therefore, the use of cork expansion joints makes special demands on the quality of cutting the material.
To give the cork condenser the desired shade, a special toning is used.
With the help of transitional sills
Transitional sills not only allow you to beautifully dock materials of various textures, properties and colors, they greatly facilitate cleaning and increase the service life of floor coverings.
There are several types of lane:
- straight sills - used to design straight cuts of single-level surfaces;
- leveling sills - allow you to connect floor coverings that are at different heights;
- finishing sills - are used to decorate podiums, adjoining steps of stairs and edges of coatings.
Currently, the construction market offers a wide selection of transitional sills made of different materials:
- sills made of natural wood look very beautiful and are in perfect harmony with furniture and laminate, but they are quite expensive and need special care - grouting scratches, polishing, painting and varnishing;
- metal sills or moldings - more durable, unpretentious and inexpensive, usually made of aluminum, stainless steel and brass, to protect against moisture and give the necessary color, metal sills are covered with protective films with a decorative pattern;
- laminated sills - completely repeat the structure and color of the laminate, therefore they are ideally combined with it, however, their performance characteristics strongly depend on the quality of the materials used and compliance with the manufacturing technology;
- plastic sills are the most common, inexpensive and technologically advanced type of design for butt joints, but rather short-lived.
The main disadvantage of transitional sills is that a small protrusion is formed at the joints. At the same time, joining laminate with tiles using transitional sills provides such advantages as:
- smooth transition;
- visual integrity of the coating;
- rich selection of colors and shades;
- the ability to design curved lines;
- quick and easy installation;
- good protection of the joint against moisture and debris.
When installing sills, it is necessary to leave expansion gaps, not forgetting to take into account the dimensions of the fasteners, otherwise the coatings may deform and lose their attractiveness.
Video
This video will tell you about the transitions for joints.
1. Market square.
How was the center of a medieval city different from a modern city?
The center of the medieval city, as well as the modern one, was the square. Only in the case of a medieval city, the whole life of the city proceeded on the square: auctions were held there, people exchanged news, punished criminals, theatrical performances and performances took place on the square.
Unlike the modern city, the medieval city had no running water or sewerage system.
2. Town Hall.
1. What items and documents were kept in the town hall? What did they mean for the city?
The town hall kept the city banner, the keys to the city gates, and the city seal. There, in strong chests behind many locks, they kept the treasury and archive. Archival documents were especially carefully guarded, as they contained letters in which the rights, freedoms and privileges of the city were recorded.
2. Which of the three listed ways of forming a city government seems to you more democratic? What groups of the urban population were in any case excluded from the city government?
The most democratic way to form a city council was to elect its members at a narrow meeting of "respected" citizens.
In any case, the poor and even many wealthy artisans were not allowed to the city government.
3. City Cathedral.
Why did the townspeople spend so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals?
The townspeople spent so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals in order to show the greatness, beauty and wealth of their city, to be proud of it. In addition, cathedrals were built in honor of the saints who were supposed to help and protect the city.
4. Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.
1. Why do you think Romanesque temples resembled fortresses? Why are they called Romanesque? How do they resemble the architectural monuments of Ancient Rome?
Because the period when the cathedrals were built - the 9th - 12th centuries - was a period of internecine wars and constant attacks by neighboring tribes (Normans, Hungarians, etc.), so they had thick walls so that in case of an attack the inhabitants of the city could hide behind them.
These cathedrals are called Romanesque because the architects who built them used the techniques of the ancient Roman builders. The architecture of ancient Rome, these cathedrals resembled the use of columns, arches and vaults.
2. What mood did the architecture of the Gothic cathedral create among believers?
The architecture of the Gothic cathedral gave the impression of lightness and weightlessness, as if the cathedral was stretching upward.
Questions at the end of the paragraph.
1. Imagine that you are a traveler arriving in a medieval city. Describe what you saw in the city. What seemed unusual to you?
The appearance of medieval cities was different from modern ones. The city was surrounded by high walls with towers and deep moats filled with water to protect against attacks, the city gates were locked at night. The walls that surrounded the city limited its territory; as the population flowed from the villages and the number of inhabitants increased, it did not accommodate all the living, and it had to be expanded by building new walls. This is how the suburbs arose, in which mainly artisans settled.
Due to the limited urban area, the streets were very narrow. Houses were built in several floors, with each upper floor hanging over the lower, so that the street was always twilight. The architecture of the houses was simple and monotonous; the main building materials were wood, stone and straw. The exceptions were the houses of feudal lords and wealthy merchants. Two buildings in the city square stood out sharply - the cathedral and the town hall. It was the center of the city and at the same time the market square. The streets were inhabited by artisans of one specialty. The windows of each workshop usually faced the street: during the day the shutters were opened, the upper one turned into a canopy, and the lower one became a counter. In addition, through the open window, it was possible to see how the products were made. Street lighting did not exist for a long time. There were no sidewalks either, the streets were unpaved, so it was very dusty in the heat in summer, and dirty in spring and autumn. Waste was thrown directly into the streets. It was difficult to walk and drive along the streets of the medieval city, the puddles were so deep that it was impossible even to ride a horse through them. The overcrowding of the population, unsanitary conditions, and the lack of hospitals turned the city into a breeding ground for all diseases and epidemics, from which sometimes 1/2 to 1/3 of the population of cities died, especially during the plague, which was called the Black Death. Cities, with their wooden buildings and thatched roofs, were often subjected to devastating fires, so it was a rule to extinguish the lights in houses at nightfall.
2. Prepare a report on one of the famous medieval cathedrals with the help of additional materials.
Chartres Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral located in the city of Chartres in the prefecture of the Ayr-et-Loire department. It is located 90 km south-west of Paris and is one of the masterpieces of Gothic architecture. In 1979, the cathedral was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Churches have long stood on the site of the modern Chartres Cathedral. Since 876, the Holy Shroud of the Virgin Mary has been kept in Chartres. Instead of the first cathedral, which burned down in 1020, a Romanesque cathedral with a huge crypt was erected. He survived the fire of 1134, which destroyed almost the entire city, but was badly damaged in a fire on June 10, 1194. From this fire, which started from a lightning strike, only the towers with the western façade and the crypt survived. The miraculous salvation from the fire of the sacred shroud was considered a sign from above and was the reason for the construction of a new, even more grandiose building.
The construction of a new cathedral began in the same year 1194 with donations that flowed to Chartres from all over France. City dwellers voluntarily delivered stone from the surrounding quarries. The design of the previous building was taken as a basis, into which the surviving parts of the old building were inscribed. Major work, which included the construction of the main nave, was completed in 1220, and the cathedral was consecrated on 24 October 1260 in the presence of King Louis IX and members of the royal family.
Chartres Cathedral has been preserved from the end of the 13th century to the present day almost intact. It escaped destruction and robbery, was not restored or rebuilt.
The three-nave building in the plan is a Latin cross with a short three-nave transept. The eastern part of the temple has several semicircular radial chapels. At the time of construction, the vaults of Chartres Cathedral were the highest in France, which was achieved through the use of flying buttresses based on buttresses. Additional flying buttresses supporting the apse appeared in the 14th century. Chartres Cathedral was the first to use this architectural element in its construction, which gave it completely unprecedented external outlines, made it possible to increase the size of the window openings and the height of the nave (36 meters).
A distinctive feature of the appearance of the cathedral are its two very different towers. The 105-meter spire of the south tower, built in 1140, is shaped like a simple Romanesque pyramid. The 113-meter-high north tower has a base left over from a Romanesque cathedral, and the tower's spire appeared at the beginning of the 16th century and is made in the style of fiery Gothic.
Chartres Cathedral has nine portals, three of which have survived from the old Romanesque cathedral. The north portal dates back to 1230 and contains sculptures of Old Testament characters. The southern portal, created between 1224 and 1250, uses New Testament plots with a central composition dedicated to the Last Judgment. The Western Portal of Christ and the Virgin Mary, better known as the Royal Portal, dates from 1150 and is famous for the 12th century depiction of Christ in Glory.
The entrances to the north and south transepts are decorated with sculptures from the 13th century. In total, the decoration of the cathedral has about 10,000 sculptural images of stone and glass.
The 16th century astronomical clock is located on the south side of the cathedral. Before the clockwork broke down in 1793, they showed not only the time, but also the day of the week, month, times of sunrise and sunset, moon phases and the current sign of the zodiac.
The interior of the cathedral is no less remarkable. The spacious nave, unparalleled in all of France, rushes towards the splendid apse located on the east side of the cathedral. Between the arcades and the upper rows of windows in the central nave, there is a triforium, the massive columns of the cathedral are surrounded by four powerful pilasters. The cathedral is famous for its colored stained-glass windows, the total area of which is about 2000 m2. The Chartres collection of medieval stained glass is absolutely unique: more than 150 windows, the oldest of which were created in the 12th century. In addition to the large stained glass roses on the western façade, the southern and northern transepts, the most famous are the 1150 stained glass window "Our Lady of Beautiful Glass" and the composition "The Tree of Ieseevo".
A distinctive feature of the stained glass windows of Chartres Cathedral is the extraordinary richness and purity of colors, the secret of obtaining which has been lost. The images are characterized by an extraordinary breadth of subject matter: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, scenes from the lives of prophets, kings, knights, artisans and even peasants.
The floor of the cathedral is decorated with an ancient labyrinth from 1205. It symbolizes the believer's path to God and is still used by pilgrims for meditation. There is only one way through this labyrinth of the cathedral. The size of the labyrinth practically coincides with the size of the window rose of the western facade (but does not repeat it exactly, as many mistakenly believe), and the distance from the western entrance to the labyrinth is exactly equal to the height of the window. The maze has eleven concentric circles, the total length of the path through the maze is approximately 260 meters. In its center is a flower with six petals, the outlines of which are reminiscent of cathedral roses.
According to the mock documentary Distant Blue Heights, the drawings on the floor of Chartres Cathedral helped mathematicians to discover "gravity tunnels."
The medieval stained glass windows, including the rose window, are well preserved in Chartres Cathedral. The total area of glazing in the cathedral is 2044 sq. M. Stained-glass windows from this period are dominated by deep blues and reds, and light shades are rare.
Questions for additional materials.
What was the significance of the activity of money changers in medieval society?
Thanks to the activities of the money changers, trade developed, as this made it possible to buy / sell goods of another state, which contributed to the development of the turnover of goods.
1. What do you think, in what architectural style was the tower erected?
I think that in the Gothic style, it is characterized by an aspiration upward.
2. How to explain that the craftsmen made such serious mistakes during the construction and, moreover, did not pay attention to the warnings?
It is possible that the masters have lost the knowledge of architecture and architecture that was known during the Roman Empire.
Sections: History and social studies
The range of problems relevant to the current stage of development of improving the educational and educational system "museum - school" is great. In this sense, the museum has been entrusted with serious tasks. The nature of interest in the museum has changed significantly - the museum is becoming one of the most powerful means of education, since the museum today is not a collection of exhibits, but a complex unity of architecture, science, and art. Constantly developing and improving, the “museum-school” system requires both teachers and museum workers to have appropriate professional knowledge and skills. Obviously, for enhancing contacts between the school and the museum, methodological recommendations are extremely important both for the teacher who wants to use the museum in the educational and educational process, and for the museum's researcher, who is interested in using the experience of colleagues as widely as possible in his work. It is the fact of the merger of some sections of pedagogy and museology that has become a platform for the creation of "museum pedagogy", the need to use which in the work of a general education school and a modern museum is dictated by the time itself.
Some teachers believe that a guided tour or lecture in a museum can replace a lesson. But a visit to a museum should not repeat, but enrich the lesson. The museum's assistance to the school is not in duplicating the lesson, but in expanding the children's ideas about the world around them, in the formation of aesthetic taste (Appendix 1). The museum exposition contributes to a special perception of the topic, a reliable assessment of the historical authenticity of an event or object. It is the object that is the object of comprehensive study by the museum, it is through the object as a monument of human culture that the museum communicates with the visitor. Therefore, one of the tasks of museum pedagogy is to create the prerequisites and conditions for activating museum visitors, in particular for improving contacts with museum objects, for organizing the perception of the information contained in them.
At the heart of the work of any museum is the subject. He is a carrier of social and natural scientific information - an authentic source of knowledge and emotions, cultural and historical value - part of the national heritage. An important feature of a museum item, which distinguishes it from other sources, is the ability of the item to influence the emotional sphere of a person. It is no coincidence that all researchers, along with other properties of a museum object, such as informativeness, representativeness (reflection of reality), call the following: - expressiveness - the ability to influence a person through their characteristics, attractiveness - attracting attention, associativity - a sense of belonging, empathy (1, 89.). In addition, each item is a sign of its time, a reflection of the peculiarities of a particular era.
One of the main properties of an object is information content. The use of various objects as visual material in the lesson is widespread and has the power of a methodological technique. The main difference between a museum object and an ordinary visual aid is in its authenticity, the function of historical memory that stores the experience of past generations. A museum item should be the primary source of social information, be genuine, and be stored for a long time. The moral, aesthetic, memorial value of the object is no less important - everything that makes the object a cultural value.
Working on the basis of the museum allows you to collect in one space a wide variety of sources: written monuments, material relics, visual materials, photographs, archeological, numismatics, bonistics, philately, ethnography and many other materials. All this allows not only to show the diversity of sources, but also to teach children the language of museum items, to give them the basics of independent research work with sources. In modern families, few things that belonged to their ancestors are kept, which would personify the "connection between generations." Before visiting the museum, many children have never had the experience of studying ancient objects. Therefore, one of the tasks is not only to draw attention to the museum object, but also to reveal its character, features, properties. This attention to the historical source is realized through the system of classes, one or another subject becomes the main character.
One of the main forms of museum educational work is an excursion. The basis of the excursion is the presence of two elements: a show and a story. The excursion is the golden mean, where the guide needs a stable balance between showing visual objects and telling about them and the events associated with them. A show is the observation of an object under the guidance of a qualified guide. When shown, a person perceives not only the appearance of an object, a monument, but also with the help of a guide distinguishes between individual parts in it, takes part in their analysis, with the help of additional materials: auxiliary visual aids. The storytelling during the excursion is an addition to the analysis of the visual range, it is especially necessary in those cases when the visual material is poorly preserved or completely lost. But stories cannot be abused. As a rule, everything that is discussed in the excursion should be presented in the visual range, which is observed by the sightseers. If there are no objects that reveal the topic, there can be no excursion itself. (2.14)
An attempt to prepare an excursion along the street on which the student lives, or any other street, microdistrict, or settlement is an excellent final task for consolidating the large amount of information obtained at the museum lessons at once. As an option and result of an integrated lesson of local history and informatics using museum technologies - a virtual excursion in multimedia performance.
Another way to show the result of a student's research, local history activity through museum technologies is to organize an exhibition on a given topic, make changes to the exposition of the school museum, update and supplement it. This work, as well as the preparation of the excursion, requires extensive preparatory research work and in practice consolidates the knowledge gained, in addition, it contributes to the development of aesthetic skills in children, artistic taste.
Currently, the issue of local history work at school is relevant. We consider the solution of this issue from the point of view of integration of local history with general education disciplines (historical local history, geographical and natural history of local history, literary, etc.). The use of the main museum technologies will make it possible to effectively organize the educational process for many teachers in a new way. Non-standard forms and methods of studying school discipline, creative control tasks, of course, will contribute to the activation of the student's mental activity, the development of his creative abilities, aesthetic perception and artistic taste. But most importantly, the combination of these innovations helps the teachers of the school and the museum to solve one of the primary tasks of pedagogy - fostering a sense of patriotism, which is achieved through knowledge of the history of the native land.
Extracurricular forms of work should not be overlooked. Local history circles and sections, the organization and maintenance of the school museum, active participation in local history competitions and olympiads is one of the important ways of carrying out meaningful and interesting work with students, the main way of transferring knowledge and skills not provided for in the school curriculum. The strict framework of the lesson does not always allow answering many questions of interest to children; it does not always provide an opportunity to help the child learn additional techniques and skills necessary for the success of the student's educational process. In this case, extracurricular activities come to the rescue, in which students acquire the necessary knowledge.
The activities of the local history, museum circle are aimed at mastering by children the skills of independent search, research work in archives, in libraries, in museums, interviewing people of interest to a museum or researcher, etc. The cycle of classes should provide for an excursion visit to the above institutions, independent work to find the necessary information given by the teacher, its processing, analysis of the work done during the circle meetings, further planning of the study, definition of goals and objectives. Mastering the above skills forms a student's clear orientation in the information space, which in the future greatly facilitates the work on the preparation of various kinds of essays, regional studies, etc. In addition, the members of the circle provide practical assistance to the school museum, thereby, delving into the essence of its work, realize the importance and significance of the existence of the museum business, and become involved in its activities.
The most receptive audience is children, and it is on them, first of all, that the educational activities of museums are oriented; it is with children that the school works, providing education and bringing up worthy citizens of their country from the younger generation.
References:
- Lebedeva P.G. The specifics of working with a museum item in the Children's Historical Museum // Museum of the XXI century: dream and reality .- SP: 1999.
- Ivashina N.N. Methodology for preparing a field trip. // Belgorod Regional Studies Bulletin. - Belgorod, 2001.
The base of the construction site is an array of soil that lies under the foundation, steadily takes the entire load of the structure on itself. Soils serving as the basis are divided into two types: natural, or natural and artificial.
thirdly, the soils should be without heaving qualities, when freezing, any such soils expand, while thawing, they decrease, which leads to a violation of the correct shrinkage of the structure and the formation of deformative cracks, gaps;
fourthly, soils must have the ability to withstand all sorts of effects of groundwater and liquids.
They have the following building classification:
- rocky- actually not compressible, not heaving at all, very waterproof (the best base). For example, Manhattan in New York.
- coarse, that is, pieces of a rock type (about 50 percent with a volume of over two millimeters): gravel and crushed stone (a fairly good base);
- sands- and the larger the particles, the greater their possibilities for construction. The sand is gravelly (large particles) under loads are significantly compacted, they do not show heaving (a fairly good base). And small, almost dusty particles, when moisture gets in, begin to heave;
- clayey take on significant loads in dry form, however, in the process of moistening, their carrying capacity is significantly reduced, they become heaving;
- loesslike, that is, macroporous, usually have good strength, however, in the process of moistening, they often give significant subsidence, they can be used provided they are strengthened;
- bulk- are formed when filling pits, garbage dumps, canals. Have a disproportionate compressibility (require hardening);
- alluvial- are formed as a result of the purification of a dried-up river or lake. Quite good soil base;
- quicksand- formed by small particles of sand with silty mixtures. They are not suitable for natural substrates.
Strengthening methods:
At first, seal... Ordinary pneumatic ramming or ramming with special plates, in some cases crushed stone is added. On large areas, rollers are used;
Secondly, pillow device... In cases where it is difficult to strengthen the soil, the layer of unreliable soil is removed and replaced with a more stable one (for example, sand or gravel). The thickness of such a pillow is usually 10 centimeters or more;
third, silicatization- used for fine dusty sand. In such cases, mixtures of liquid glass with various chemical additives should be injected into the soil. After the soil hardens, it will acquire a good bearing capacity;
fourthly, cementation, that is, the supply of a cement mixture under the base in liquid form or a liquid mixture of cement with sand;
fifth, burning, that is, the thermal method, combustion of various combustible materials in the depths of the wells. Used for loess soil types. Thus, the foundation of the soil will be reliable if all these requirements and conditions are observed during construction.
The density of the bearing soil underneath and is critical to their safe and long lasting. In our country, cases when buildings, structures and roads are erected on dense continental soils that do not require additional strengthening are relatively rare, most often it is necessary to carry out a number of measures to strengthen the soil, and most of them have a volume and final cost comparable to all subsequent construction.
There are only three ways to strengthen the soil, both natural and artificially poured. It:
- Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity.
- Physical compaction of natural soils.
- Strengthening with additional materials
Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity can be carried out in two ways.
First: excavation (usually fine-grained, dusty sands, water-saturated gley soils in the place of former swamps) to the mainland foundation (usually gravel), followed by backfilling the excavation with gravel, crushed stone or pouring a solid concrete slab. Gravel and crushed stone are compacted with vibratory rammers or heavy equipment, for example, road rollers weighing 10-15 tons.
Second: frequent driving of piles into the upper layer of fragile soil to the mainland foundation. Currently, they are used exclusively, although history knows other examples, for example, oak piles were used in the construction of St. Petersburg.
Strengthening soils with additional materials has become possible in recent years with the advent of geotextiles, better known as non-woven synthetic materials. It combines several useful properties and forms a solid, non-decaying, water-permeable base on the soil surface. With its help, you can strengthen the slopes of embankments or canals, make the foundation for footpaths and even highways. It is used both independently and as a topcoat of gravel or crushed stone bedding.
Physical compaction of bulk and natural soils is carried out in any case to form a denser "cushion". For such a process, only materials with a structure of medium discreteness are suitable - gravel, crushed stone (sand with natural stones), in rare cases it is used. Depending on the amount of work and the size of the material fractions, both light tools (vibratory rammers) and heavy equipment are used.