Employment- the activity of the working-age population associated with the production of material and spiritual goods in order to satisfy personal and social needs, which does not contradict the law and, as a rule, brings them earnings (labor income).
Basic principles employment:
1. Ensuring freedom in work and employment, prohibition of forced and compulsory labor. A person has the priority right to choose to participate or not to participate in social work;
2. Creation by the state of conditions to ensure the right to work, to protection from unemployment, to assistance in employment and material support for unemployment in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Employment happens:
Full, i.e. when all willing able-bodied citizens have an objective opportunity to have a paid job, while the unemployment rate is equal to the natural one.
Productive, i.e. when the population is engaged in social production, namely, this is the employed part of the EAN.
Socially useful - the activity of people who work in public production, serve in the armed forces and internal troops, study full-time, are engaged in housekeeping, caring for children and sick relatives.
Rational – a type of voluntary employment, which presupposes a qualitative correspondence between workers and the jobs they occupy.
Effective - the use of labor resources, which achieves maximum material results and social effect with minimal labor costs, with minimal social costs.
Forms of employment– these are the organizational and legal conditions of employment.
Vary forms employment according to the following criteria:
Form of ownership of means of production:
— wage labor — the relationship between the owners of the means of production and workers;
— entrepreneurship;
- self-employment.
Place of work
- at the enterprise;
- at home;
- shift method.
Regularity of work activity
- permanent - the employee must work a certain number of hours every week, less often every month;
- temporary - employment for a certain period and travel employment;
— seasonal — work during a certain season;
- episodic - performing short-term work of various nature in order to receive material remuneration without concluding an employment contract.
Legitimacy of employment
— formal (registered);
- informal.
Activity status
- main;
- additional (secondary).
Operating modes
- tight schedule;
- flexible schedule.
Flexible forms of employment— forms of labor utilization based on the use of non-standard organizational and legal conditions for the employment of workers. Non-standard, flexible employment includes the following forms:
Employment associated with non-standard working hours, such as a flexible working year, compressed working week, flexible working hours.
Employment related to the social status of workers: independent workers, family members helping them.
Employment in jobs with non-standard jobs and labor organization: home work, on-call workers, rotational and expeditionary employment.
Employment in non-standard organizational forms: temporary workers, part-time jobs.
| 1. Full time | A condition in the labor market in which everyone who wants a paid job has one |
| 2. Productive employment | Employment to create useful goods and services both for society and for the employee himself |
| 3. Freely chosen employment | Employment in which the right to control one's own ability to work belongs exclusively to the owner of the labor force |
| 4. Rational employment | Optimal distribution of employees across industries and regions of the country in order to produce products and provide services that are in demand |
| 5. Effective employment | Employment in the most technically equipped, profitable industries, with advanced labor organization, high productivity and product quality |
| 6. Socially useful employment, or socially effective | A level of employment that does not lead to social tension in society and does not contradict the interests of production efficiency |
| 7. Permanent (main) employment | Full-time employment |
| Flexible forms of employment | |
| 8. Part-time employment (underemployment) | Part-time employment, including: a) voluntary(at the request of the employee); b) forced(for economic reasons, determined by the employer) |
Continuation of the table. 5.1
| Forms of employment | Content |
| 9. Underemployment visible and invisible | Underemployment in working hours, low wages, low labor productivity, underutilization of the professionally qualified level of the worker |
| 10. Secondary, part-time, additional employment | Part-time employment, contractual employment |
| 11. Temporary employment | Employment under temporary contracts |
| Forms of employment related to industry characteristics | |
| 12. Seasonal employment | Associated with seasonal work in agriculture, construction, logging, recreation areas, fishing |
| 13.Forcible educational employment | Employment in colonies and prisons |
| 14.Global employment | Employment in the country's economy, in general and vocational educational institutions, in military service, in the household, in various institutions and other types of socially useful activities |
| Non-standard forms of employment | |
| 15. Self-employment | The employee’s activities on his own initiative, without the use of hired labor, in the production of goods and provision of services |
| 16. Employment at home (home work) | Work on finished raw materials, equipment, finished products |
| 17. Work on calls | Employment for special difficult jobs |
| 18. Community service | Low-skilled temporary employment |
| 19. Informal (hidden, shadow) employment | Employment in the informal (shadow) sector of the economy |
End of Table 5.1
Productive employment means employment in creating useful goods and services both for society and for the worker himself.
Freely chosen employment- this is employment in which the right to control one’s own ability to work belongs exclusively to the owner of the labor force.
Rational employment involves the optimal distribution of employees across industries and regions of the country in order to produce products and provide services that are in demand. Marketing plays an important role in its implementation.
Effective employment- this is employment in the most technically equipped, profitable industries, with advanced labor organization, high productivity and product quality. It presupposes the presence of employees and a management team (managers) who are highly professional and committed to effective work.
Socially useful, or socially effective, employment - this is a level of employment that does not lead to social tension in society and does not contradict the interests of production efficiency.
Permanent (main) employment This is full-time employment.
Also distinguished flexible forms of employment . The most common form of employment is when the employee, in agreement with the administration, can choose the start and end time of work, as well as the duration and time of the lunch break. In this case, the employee must comply with the established working hours or weekly (monthly) working hours. In the first case, the employee can change the beginning and end of work, working the established length of working hours every day.
In the second case, the duration of the working day is not regulated, but the duration of working hours during the week or month is observed.
With flexible working hours, there are usually certain hours when attendance at work is mandatory. There is also the practice of taking a long lunch break in the middle of the day, usually up to two hours.
Flexible forms of working time also include a compressed working week, in which a standard or part-time working week is distributed over a smaller number of working days: four, three or less. The length of the working day increases accordingly. The advantage of this form for enterprises and organizations is that the number of jobs is almost doubled when working throughout the week. For employees, this creates an additional number of non-working days off. However, an increase in working hours can lead to a decrease in hourly output, as well as the quality of products and services.
Of particular importance is underemployment, or underemployment , is part-time employment. It can be set by both the employer (company) - this forced part-time work, and with the consent or even on the initiative of the employee - voluntary underemployment.
Recently, part-time work has become widespread in countries with developed market economies, both on the initiative of employers and the workers themselves.
For the latter, part-time employment is in some cases the most acceptable form of employment. This applies especially to women with family responsibilities, older workers, disabled people, young people combining work and study, etc.
Thus, in many countries, women with children prefer to work part-time. For employers, part-time work makes it possible to retain key personnel during a decline in production and generally maneuver working hours depending on production conditions. It is interesting to note that with reduced working hours, there is often a higher hourly labor productivity compared to the normal regime.
Part-time work with a corresponding reduction in wages at the initiative of employers due to a decrease in business activity is defined by the International Labor Organization (ILO) as partial unemployment.
Certain objective conditions have recently been created for the widespread development of part-time employment. This is a reduction in the share of employment in sectors of material production and an increase in the service sector, a rapid change in the volume and structure of demand for goods and services and the need to maneuver the quantity and quality of labor, the need of the workers themselves, especially certain categories, for reduced working hours.
In most countries there is no legal definition of what constitutes part-time employment. Only in France it includes those who work 1/5 or less of the standard working time, which is 39 hours per week or 169 hours per month. Part-time employment usually covers wage earners. This means that self-employed and working family members cannot qualify. This does not include temporary and seasonal workers who usually work less than the standard working hours during the year.
In Russia, forced underemployment has acquired enormous proportions. In the mid-90s, more than 3 million people worked part-time, including 32% of railway transport workers, 27% of mechanical engineering workers, and 22% of light industry workers. However, in recent years, the number of people working part-time and on leave at the initiative of the administration has been sharply declining. So, if in 2003 there were 13.1 thousand of them in the republic, then in 2006 there were 3.7 thousand people, which is 3 times less.
There are various options for reducing working hours. One of them is a shortened working week or shortened working day. In accordance with the ILO Conventions and Recommendations, as well as established practice in most countries, in case of temporary layoffs at the initiative of employers, partial compensation for lost earnings is paid.
Another variation is the division of the workplace between two workers. In this case, working hours, wages, various additional payments and benefits are divided. Typically, division occurs by day of the week or hour of day. Less often, work alternates every other week, during which there may be overtime work with appropriate additional pay.
Underemployment visible and invisible – This is quantitative underemployment expressed in terms of working hours. The qualitative aspect of underemployment is low wages, low labor productivity, and underutilization of the professionally qualified level of the employee.
It has become quite widespread among teachers, utility workers, and junior service personnel. In Russia, in contrast to part-time employment, it occurs under full-time working conditions, when the employee’s capabilities are not fully used, below the capabilities of his qualifications, on old low-productivity equipment, with intra-shift losses of working time, etc. Some authors classify it as part-time employment .
Secondary employment- This is part-time employment, under a contract. It has become quite widespread among teachers, doctors, utility workers, and junior service personnel. In Russia, according to the recorded data alone, more than 1 million people work part-time every year, and in the Republic of Mari El – 7–9 thousand people.
Temporary employment This is employment on temporary contracts. It has become quite widespread in Western European countries, especially in Germany, Greece, Denmark, and Portugal.
Firms are interested in temporary employment because they can freely vary the number of employees, reduce personnel costs due to lower wages of temporary employees, quickly replace temporarily absent permanent workers, quickly increase the number of employees during periods of increased business activity, select proven temporary employed for permanent work.
Temporary employment is most widespread among workers in trade, services, and construction workers. Highly qualified specialists also work under temporary contracts: architects, designers, planners and others.
In industry, temporary employment is used less frequently. It mainly covers unskilled casual workers.
The majority of temporary workers are women who work part-time. In a number of countries, this type of employment is organized by special temporary hiring firms or public employment services.
Distinguish forms of employment associated with industry characteristics.
Seasonal employment. Associated with seasonal work in agriculture, construction, logging, recreation areas, fishing, sugar and some other industries with uneven load throughout the year.
With seasonal employment, a person remains unemployed for a significant part of the year. This is a type of temporary employment, but unlike the latter, seasonal employment can be repeated annually in the same place.
Persons engaged in seasonal work during periods of unemployment are not classified as unemployed in most countries. If they have worked the full annual working time during the season, they are considered fully employed, if part of it is considered underemployed. During the off-season period, they can be employed in other temporary jobs or get permanent jobs.
Forced educational employment celebrated in colonies and prisons.
Global employment- this is employment in the country’s economy, in general and vocational educational institutions, in military service, in the household, in various institutions and in other types of socially useful activities.
There are a number non-standard forms of employment.
Self-employment- this is the activity of an employee on his own initiative, without the use of hired labor, in the production of goods and provision of services. At the same time, the worker owns certain means of production and organizes his own
work.
The International Labor Office's special report, Promoting Self-Employment, states: “Self-employment is increasingly gaining attention in an era when, in most countries, governments and large enterprises are clearly failing to provide adequate wage opportunities to job seekers.” (Nikiforova , A. A. Labor market: Employment and unemployment / A. A. Nikiforova. - M., 1991. - Chapter V). Thus, to a certain extent, self-employment is an alternative to unemployment. In addition, it is partly associated with shadow and criminal employment. But this does not exclude its independent positive role.
Employment at home (home work). Under it, workers receive finished raw materials, materials, equipment and tools and periodically hand over finished products to the company (organization). There is a certain interest in working from home among workers who themselves determine the time and amount of work and combine it, as a rule, with housekeeping. At the same time, firms free up production space and save on wage costs compared to the main ones.
On-call work– this is employment for performing difficult tasks.
An important form of precarious employment is public Works , organized by employment services and local administrations specifically for the unemployed. These are temporary, as a rule, low-skilled work for cleaning the territory, participating in road construction, and the like.
Informal (hidden, shadow) employment– this is employment in the informal (shadow) sector of the economy.
Types of employment
Types of employment– this is the distribution of labor resources across spheres and sectors of the economy.
There are the following types of employment (see Table 5.1).
Employment by industry and types of economic activities.
In recent years, Russia has seen great changes in employment by industry. With the transition to a market and a decrease in the total number of employees, the largest reduction in production sectors occurred in industry, and in the non-production sphere - in science and scientific services. Here the reduction began back in 1986 (3210 thousand people), and by 2005 it was almost
1.0 million people.
First of all, attention is drawn to the large share of people employed in industry and construction in Russia, where it is significantly higher compared to developed foreign countries and 2.7 times higher than in developing countries.
As for agriculture, the share of employed people in Russia is still significantly higher than in industrialized countries. This is explained, first of all, by the lower technical level of domestic agricultural production.
leadership
The service sector includes all sectors except industry, construction and agriculture, including all transport and communications.
Employment by economic sector. As already mentioned, employment is growing rapidly in the non-state sector and in enterprises and organizations with mixed ownership and is declining in enterprises and organizations in the public sector.
At the end of the 90s, employment in the non-state sector reached 87.7% in construction, 84.6% in trade, 18.4% in health care, physical culture and art, and 35.3% in science and scientific services. Employees accounted for 10%, of which employers 1.7%. In the Republic of Mari El, the dynamics over the past 10 years (1995 - 2005) show that employment in the public sector increased by 30 thousand (9%), in the mixed sector - by 47.4 thousand (14.2%), in private sector - by 76.7 thousand people (13.1%).
Employment structure by profession. In industry, the largest reduction in workers is occurring in the metalworking and engineering industries. In the service sector, employment of textile, garment and shoe makers is rapidly declining and the number of salespeople is increasing. Employment in construction is increasing, albeit slowly. The employment of engineering and technical workers, both with secondary specialized and higher education, has decreased significantly in all sectors, and the employment of low-skilled workers and workers without specialties is declining.
Employment of the economically active population by gender. In the 90s, out of 64.7 million people employed in the country’s national economy, 33.5 million were men and 31.2 million were women. In health care and social security, women's employment reached 84%, in lending, finance and insurance - 81%, in education - 80%, in trade, catering, sales and procurement - 77%.
At the same time, their share in industry was 46%, in agriculture - 38%, in construction - 25%. In subsequent years, women's employment, especially in industry and in some other sectors and areas, declined faster than men's employment. In general, in 2005 the number of employed women increased by 7.5 thousand, and men decreased by 500 people compared to the 1999 level
Employment structure by age. In table Figure 5.2 shows the composition of the employed population by age in 2005.
Noteworthy is the significant difference in the employment of men and women of working age after 30 years, which is associated with the high mortality rate of men at this age.
The high employment of women at retirement age is also characteristic, which is explained, first of all, by the low size of their pensions, which in many cases do not provide even a physiological subsistence minimum.
Table 5.2
Composition of the employed population by age, %
Employment structure by education level. Women are leaders in the employed population in terms of education level (Table 5.3).
There is no such superiority of women in this criterion among the employed population in any other country in the world.
Table 5.3
Composition of the employed population by education in 2001, %
Along with the general reduction in employment in certain industries and areas, there has been a tendency towards its growth. Employment is increasing in a number of sectors of housing and communal services, insurance, transport and communications.
Employment growth in the Republic of Mari El is also typical for market infrastructure institutions, as well as for pulp and paper production, publishing and printing activities, production of rubber, plastic and metal products, vehicles, electrical equipment, in the industries of wholesale and retail trade, transport and communications, in financial activities, public administration, health care and education.
QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL
1. What is the difference between forms and types of employment?
2. Describe the main forms of employment. What forms of employment are fundamental in government policy on the labor market? What do you mean by full-time employment?
3. Describe the main types of employment.
4. What forms of employment are typical for your city (district)? What proportion of them are underemployed (hidden unemployment), working part-time or under a contract, how many people are engaged in individual entrepreneurial activities (self-employment, farming, home-based work)?
5. How are the employed citizens of your city (district) distributed among industries and sectors of the economy?
6. Under what conditions can full, productive and freely chosen employment be achieved in society?
Note. To answer questions 4 and 5, it is necessary to use data from Maristat or the statistical departments in cities and regions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adamchuk, V.V., Labor Economics / V.V. Adamchuk, Yu.P. Kokin, R.A. Yakovlev. – M.: ZAO Finstatinform, 1999. – P. 43-44.
2. Belozerova, S. The goal is full and effective employment / S. Belozerova // Man and labor. – 1997. – No. 12. – P. 32-36.
3. Kabalina, V. Statistics and practice of part-time employment in Russia / V. Kabalina, Z. Ryzhikova // Questions of statistics. – 1998. – No. 2. – P. 31-41.
4. Kostin, L.A. Labor market and employment theories: textbook. allowance / L.A. Kostin, G.M. Zushchina, R.M. Sultanova. – M., 1997. – P. 75-88.
5.Maslova, I.S. Effective employment and the labor market / I.S. Maslova // Bulletin of Statistics. – 1990. – No. 1-2.
6. Nizova, L.M. Employment of the population and its regulation: educational and methodological complex / L.M. Nizova. – Yoshkar-Ola: MarSTU, 2003. –P. 7-11.
7. Nizova, L.M. Labor market and employment of the population: educational and methodological manual / L.M. Nizova. – Yoshkar-Ola: Mar. state univ., 2006. – pp. 5-9.
8. Nizova, L.M. Employment and unemployment in a transformational economy: regional aspect (on the example of the Republic of Mari El) / L.M. Nizova // Collection of articles based on the results of the scientific and technical conference of MarSTU. – Yoshkar-Ola, 2006.
9.On employment in the Russian Federation: Federal Law of April 19, 1991 // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation. – 1996. – No. 17. – St. 1915.
10. Semenov, A. From the accumulation of hidden unemployment - to stimulation of employment / A. Semenov // Man and labor. – 1994. – No. 6. – pp. 13-18.
11. Smirnov, S. System for assessing the effectiveness of employment in the regions / S. Smirnov // Man and Labor. – 1996. – No. 12. – P. 30-82.
12. Smirnov, S. Industry structure of employment: Analysis / S. Smirnov // Man and labor. – 1998. – No. 1. – pp. 50-54.
13. Tarasova, N.A. The structure of forced employment and its influence on the processes of the transition period / N.A. Trasova, M.S. Blumina // Economics and mathematics. methods. – 1995. – Issue. 2. – P.54-66.
14. Khibevskaya, Ch. Secondary employment as a way of adaptation to economic reforms / Ch. Khibevskaya // Questions of Economics. – 1995. – No. 5. – pp. 71-79.
15. Labor Economics and Social and Labor Relations / ed. G.G. Melikyana, R.P. Kolosova. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1996. – P. 81-90.
16. Labor market: textbook / ed. prof. V.S. Bulanova and prof. ON THE. Volgina. – M.: Exam, 2000. – 448 p.
Few people do not understand that unemployment is a great harm for everyone who is faced with it, as well as for society as a whole. In contrast, full employment is a blessing when everyone who is able to work finds a job, receives a salary and provides for their living needs. It would seem that it could be simpler than the dependence of unemployment on full employment. Provide the government with jobs, and the unemployed will immediately disappear. However, at the present stage of development of society, such an idyll has been achieved only twice, and both during the world wars and a short time after them.
Full employment throughout the state
In macroeconomics, that is, for any country in general, full employment is a stage in its development when absolutely all economic resources are used, including the workforce, that is, unemployment as such does not exist. All powers strive for this, but economists say that such indicators are impossible to achieve, because in any society there will always be different prerequisites for the presence of a certain number of unemployed. A continuation of this idea is the assertion that with full employment there should always be a natural rate of unemployment, and when it decreases, inflation occurs. How much exactly is this norm? Nobody gives exact figures, but there are opinions that full employment occurs at a level of unemployment at which there is no wage inflation or no price inflation.
What prevents full employment from existing?
Modern society is developing in such a way that it is unthinkable to avoid structural or technological changes in the economy (progress cannot be stopped, after all). At the same time, for dozens of reasons, old forms of production are destroyed faster than new ones appear in sufficient quantities. This gives rise to structural or technological unemployment. We cannot ignore the human factor, which influences the fact that there are always people who are forced to voluntarily leave their jobs, for example, in connection with moving to live in another region or with any fundamental changes in their personal lives. This gives rise to frictional unemployment. And so on. Therefore, most economists are inclined to argue that the concept of full employment for society as a whole means reaching a level in the economy when there are no reasons causing low demand for labor.
Full time for structural units
In microeconomics, that is, for any enterprise, regardless of its scale and the industry to which it belongs, full employment is the absence of free vacancies while maximizing the use of all its resources and achieving consistently high profits. From this perspective, full employment not only can be achieved, but is achieved in many enterprises, thanks to skillful management and planning. At the same time, in the industry as a whole or in the region where such an enterprise is located, there may be a fairly significant number of people who do not have a job and want to get one. Figuratively speaking, in a large sea of unemployment, small islands of full employment can quite realistically exist without affecting the parameters of this sea in any way. 
Full time for the subject
From the perspective of each individual person, full employment is his participation in the labor process at his workplace for the time specified in the employment contract (full day, month, year), and for the labor invested the employee must receive payment that satisfies the needs of life. At first glance, it seems that everything is clear with this interpretation, however, there are also some nuances related to the essence of the very concept of “employment”. In a general sense, it means that an individual participates in the labor process without breaking laws and receiving a salary for his work. In addition to full-time employment, employment can be part-time, permanent, temporary, part-time, conditional, remote, irregular, secondary and shadow. Each of these types makes adjustments to full employment and influences fluctuations in the unemployment rate.
Underemployment
This term is synonymous with part-time work and means that a person has a job, but participates in the labor process for less time than stated in the employment contract. As a rule, we speak of underemployment when an employee has less than 5-15 working hours per week. 
There is a steady growth trend in this model of work activity around the world. The reasons for this are different, but in any case, full and part-time employment should provide workers with equal rights as set out in the labor code. What could cause a decrease in the number of hours worked? On the one hand, employees themselves prefer to have a reduced schedule in order to have time to study, family, and part-time work. In such cases, part-time work is called voluntary. On the other hand, entrepreneurs may force their employees to work part-time or a week because the enterprise is facing an unfavorable economic situation. In such cases, part-time employment is called forced. A small number of working hours significantly reduces wages and reduces the standard of living, but despite this, while a worker is officially employed, he cannot receive unemployed status and financial assistance from the state.
Conditional employment, or the unpredictability of precarization
The term “precarization” means “doubtfulness”, “without guarantee”, “instability”. Its essence is that the employer hires an employee, provides him with a workplace, stipulates a salary, but the employment contract is drawn up only for a strictly limited period, or the employee’s work activity is planned on a contract basis, on call, under leasing (hiring through an agency without providing guarantees), outstaffing (employees are registered in one organization, but perform work for another). In all these cases, although the employee is provided with full-time employment, a full working day, his work activity can be terminated at any time. At the same time, the employer bears virtually no responsibility for his “precariat,” and for workers such full employment is very conditional. 
Permanent employment
This concept means guaranteed participation in the labor process for a very long time, for example until retirement. At the same time, the employee’s full-time employment can be replaced for some time by part-time (without loss of rights and benefits stipulated by the employment contract). Also, permanent employment does not exclude an employee’s advancement through the ranks, a change of profession (within the same enterprise), or a transition from one workshop to another. This type of employment (full-time employment) is considered the most prosperous. He guarantees workers material remuneration, paid vacations, medical insurance, bonuses for long service, and for overtime work. This type of employment allows an enterprise to reduce staff turnover and have employees who constantly improve their skills, and therefore the quality of their products.
Secondary employment
This concept means part-time work for those who have a main job, as well as additional income for pensioners, students, and housewives. In the post-Soviet state, secondary employment became extremely popular during the period of perestroika, when society was shaken by the cataclysms of a collapsing economy, people were not paid wages, and material remuneration did not keep pace with the uncontrolled rise in prices. Full employment in this case implies part-time work at the main workplace (where the person is officially registered) plus secondary work, that is, part-time work. In total, a person works a sufficient number of hours and receives an acceptable salary. Now millions of Russian citizens work in this mode. There are even centers in the country that help you find a second job. Among the professions offered there, the most popular are:
- loader;
- cleaner;
- leaflet maker;
- courier;
- babysitter (childcare by the hour);
- merchandiser;
- promoter;
- cashier.
For many, participation in additional labor significantly helps improve their financial situation. However, for young people this way of working is not particularly good in the sense that it does not ensure the development of creative potential and does not help to acquire and improve professional skills. 
Part-time employment
This concept has a lot in common with part-time work, but there are some differences. At the moment, there are several interpretations of part-time employment:
- This is the work of citizens in positions whose level is below their professional qualities and abilities. The following exaggerated examples can be given: a doctor works as an orderly, a professor works as a janitor, a lawyer works as a watchman. And although people may work full-time in positions that do not correspond to their potential, their type of employment cannot be called “full-time,” if only because they do not receive proper material remuneration.
- This is forced part-time work, due to the fact that job seekers cannot find anything better.
- This is one of the aspects of hidden unemployment (long leaves without pay, seasonal or temporary work).
Shadow employment
People call this “leftist work”, “shabby”. Essentially, this is any labor activity, the income from which passes by the tax authorities. Very often, labor activities hidden from taxation ensure full employment of the employee. However, it not only does not reduce, but, on the contrary, quite significantly aggravates unemployment, since many entrepreneurs hire migrants without registration, thereby depriving the indigenous population of vacancies.
Closely related to shadow employment is the so-called self-employment, which includes the unregistered rental of living space, the sale of products from one’s land plots, and the like. 
Remote employment
This type of work activity is also called remote work. Previously, it consisted in the fact that certain organizations sent by mail kits of parts from which they needed to assemble fountain pens, glue envelopes, and the like to those who wanted to improve their financial situation. With the advent of computers, remote work has acquired hundreds of varieties and enormous proportions. At the moment, remote full-time employment involves an individual devoting so much time to work in order to receive an expected reward for his work that can ensure material well-being. In practice, in most cases, remote employment is secondary, part-time, part-time, and almost always shadow.
Theories for achieving full employment in macroeconomics
As we see, full employment does not always mean that an individual has a workplace where he works full time. That is, a person may be listed as unemployed, although in reality he participates in the labor process and receives a salary for it. In parallel, the presence of a job does not always mean full or even part-time employment of a worker who is actually unemployed.
All this complicates the determination of the unemployment level and proper planning of the economic development of the state. Leading economists therefore claim that there is no way to make a “fine-tuning” in the structure of the economy that will achieve full employment for all and eliminate unemployment. Instead, they propose to establish fixed rates of increase in the money supply, thereby controlling inflation, which, in turn, will make it possible to maintain the natural rate of unemployment. Others propose reducing the role of trade unions, removing the framework of free competition, and reducing payments to the unemployed.
Forecasts
Throughout the history of modern society, unemployment has always existed (except for the periods of two world wars), but its growth rate either increased significantly or fell to tolerable values, which were conventionally assumed to be zero. This was the case in Europe in the 50s and 60s, and already in the 70s the unemployment rate jumped sharply, which many economists associate with a sharp increase in wages and at the same time prices.
One of the effective ways for developed countries to achieve full employment and reduce unemployment to a minimum is to reduce wages for workers and reduce prices for enterprises. The second method is the conduct of fiscal policy by states. However, doubts are expressed that even using these methods of regulation, it will be possible to return the unemployment rate to the levels of the 50s and 60s. The reasons for this are floating exchange rates, capital flows, which is reflected in foreign trade, and contradictions in the field of welfare growth and social security.
Classification of the employed population,
used in world practice,
includes two main categories: paid employment and self-employed.
The definition of employment adopted in Russia also takes into account this division
and substantially complies with the ILO criteria and recommendations contained in the resolution of the 13th International Conference
according to labor statistics. The Russian definition lists three categories of employed
of the population: 1) who performed hired work for remuneration (on a full
or part-time), and
other income-generating work (independently or for individual citizens); 2) temporarily absent from work due to illness, injury, vacation, etc.
reasons; 3) those who performed work without pay in a family enterprise.
The literature on employment issues often suggests more
detailed classification of types of employment.
For example: full, productive, rational, effective, self-employment,
partial, secondary, temporary, seasonal. Most of the listed definitions serve only as a means of designating a phenomenon, and not its comprehensive
characteristics using quantitative parameters. So, full employment
implies only the presence in the country of certain living conditions under which
every able-bodied person is given the opportunity to have a job;
productive employment characterizes
creation of useful goods and services; rational employment is the optimal distribution of the working population across
industries and regions of the country for the purpose of producing products and providing services; under effective employment
refers to the use of workers in
such production areas,
which define scientific and technical
progress; part-time work is different
part-time work,
part-time work week; secondary -
performing regular paid work
for another organization at the main place of work; temporary - performing work under temporary contracts.
There are also simplified classifications of employment, for example: full-time,
partial and hidden.
Official Russian statistics
unable to take into account the numerical composition of most of the noted categories
and some others. There is no information about those voluntarily employed in jobs with reduced working hours (hence included in another
independent category) or forced and permanently working in such workplaces, as well as having
temporary irregular employment. During its surveys, Goskomstat only comes to the attention of a group of workers temporarily employed during
part-time or are
on vacations at the initiative of administrations. Its population is five and a half to six million people. According to other estimates, the magnitude of the forced
part-time employment is expressed as a figure
six to eight million people,
or 10–12 percent of all employed people.
Official data from Goskomstat
clarifies only a few trends,
characteristic of part-time (part-time) employment (see table).
| Index |
1998, |
|||||
| Number economically active population (millions of people) |
||||||
| Number of employees: million people percentage economically active population |
||||||
| Number of employees workers located on forced leave: thousands of people percentage economically active population percentage of employed |
||||||
| Number working in part-time: thousands of people percentage economically active population active population percentage of employed |
In general, in Russian statistical practice, and not only official,
over the past four to five years, sampling methods have become quite widespread
population surveys used
along with the traditional calculation method
balance of labor resources, which was used back in socialist times
and relied on mandatory regular
and complete reporting of all enterprises
and organizations. The ILO considers employment sample surveys (ESS) as a priority source of information. They
allow you to reach all population groups
and identify the characteristics of employment both at enterprises and outside them:
in individual entrepreneurship,
in the informal sector, from private individuals,
in a subsidiary farm.
At the same time, the use of ONPZ
does not at all guarantee the exact correspondence of the original national definitions to the international ones. For example, in Russia those engaged in home production
goods and services for sale were classified as employment only in 2001
(until 1999, the ONPZ questionnaires did not contain special questions regarding
given employment segment).
In addition, the overall employment picture obtained from both the ONPZ and
and based on the balance calculation,
does not exactly match, although clearly
reflects the general trend. According to
official estimates indicate that employment fell from 73.8 million in 1991 to 65 million in 2000,
the reduction was 8.8 million, or about 12 percent of the initial level. According to the results of sample
surveys, employment (without employed
in personal subsidiary plots (LPH)
decreased by 8.9 percent). During this period, the difference between the corresponding annual values
ranged from one million in 1992 to a maximum gap of 5.7 million in 1998. In 2000 this gap
dropped to 2.8 million people
(4.3 percent in relation to the number of employees, calculated using the balance sheet method).
The different types of employment that have emerged on the Russian labor market during the decade of transformation may
be conditionally united by the concept of unregistered employment. It does not cover
only unemployed people with official status, but also employed workers, more often
only in the form of secondary employment. According to sociological research, at least 70 percent of workers
those who are underemployed, have work during periods of forced vacations or shortened working hours. Share of secondary employed
official unemployment fluctuates
from 20 to 30 percent. T. Maleva believes that the scale of informal and unregistered employment is expressed
numbering 10–12 million people. She
states that "currently
a latent type of labor relations is being formed, within the framework of which individual interests and personal agreements rise above the law and labor
right"; this process is a continuation of the trend of “escape from taxes”, criminalization of the economy, sharp differentiation of incomes of the population as a result
formation of a large volume of unaccounted income.
Unregistered employment has
many manifestations. Sociological
surveys showed that the most widespread services were in the field of construction, repair, sewing (56.6 percent),
street trading (11.8 percent), maintenance of small private enterprises - shops, cafes, kiosk (8.4 percent). Moreover
the greatest activity in this field
the unemployed show.
There are also concepts employment outside enterprises and organizations And informal employment. The scale of employment outside enterprises is estimated by
according to ONPZ. Since 1997, the population survey sheet has included a point about the place of main work (outside the enterprise sector), which includes as
farming components,
sphere of entrepreneurial activity without forming a legal entity
and for hire from individuals. Based
survey data, non-sector employment
enterprises amounted to four and a half million people in 1997,
and in 2000 it grew to five and a half million.
The economy of the Russian Federation is increasingly taking on a market character, which also has an impact on the social sphere. In the harsh conditions of a planned economy, it was not possible for specific forms of labor relations to develop. Market reforms corrected this situation, allowing for the emergence of new forms and types of employment. Thanks to this, the employment market has become more optimized. The public sector is quite popular among the population. Private, although it occupies a certain niche in the market, is not to the extent that it suppresses the public one. This material will describe the concept and types of employment.
What is included in the concept of employment?
Many definitions describe the concept of “rational employment”. Species are completely different definitions. But in a broad sense, the essence lies in a set of specific activities that are of a different nature. These are activities related to organization, finance and law. All of them are aimed at providing the residents of the state with work.
All types of employment in Russia are only forms of activity permitted by law. This also includes types that are characterized by individual provision. This is, for example, private enterprise or farming. Also, types of employment are forms of activity that can be carried out thanks to an existing license from government agencies or private organizations.
What does the concept of employment mean?
Employment is a human activity, the purpose of which is to satisfy personal needs (mainly material), that is, to generate income. These actions must comply with government regulations. According to Russian legislation, every citizen has the right to dispose of labor resources and creative potential at his own discretion. It is the fulfillment of such requirements that is necessary in order to characterize rational employment. Types of employment, regardless of their characteristics, do not imply any coercive measures. The Constitution of the Russian Federation states that the implementation of the right to work should be initiated only by the person himself and carried out by him in a free form.
Employed segments of the population
The concept of employment and employment (their types) cannot be complete without describing the circle of persons who are the subjects of such relations. The subjects of labor relations are citizens who apply for work, as well as employers.
All types of employment are targeted actions in relation to any subject. An employed person is a person who is a citizen of the Russian Federation, who works thanks to the conclusion of an agreement establishing an employment relationship. The list of such persons is quite extensive and includes the following categories:
- People who perform a specific set of actions that have a paid basis. The employee is paid remuneration for the work done, which he carries out as part of a full-time or short-time working day. This includes both permanent service and temporary, seasonal types of employment.
- Persons who have the status of private entrepreneurs and are engaged in commercial activities.
- Ancillary workers whose main source of income is the sale of goods in accordance with the conclusion of supply contracts.
- Persons who have entered into contracts that have a civil legal basis. They are compiled regarding the performance of work or provision of services. The parties to the agreement may be individual entrepreneurs.
- People who have received a position or assignment for which compensation is due.
- Persons involved in law enforcement agencies, such as the fire service, internal affairs agencies, and criminal authorities.
- People in military or alternative civil service.
- Students and students of general education institutions, primary, secondary and higher professional institutions.
- Persons who, for certain reasons, cannot carry out their usual work activities. Among such factors are inability to work, completion of advanced training courses, vacation, sick leave, retraining, temporary suspension of the institution, preparation for service in the armed forces, and more.
- People who are founders of organizations. An exception to this clause are religious, public and charitable organizations, because there are no property rights in relation to such created structures.
How is employment carried out?
All types of employment in Russia have a common essence, which is the order of successive steps that should ultimately lead to obtaining a job. In a narrower sense, this definition means the assistance of government agencies to its citizens in the form of providing vacancies. This includes not only assistance in finding appropriate work, but also retraining, retraining, and transfer. That is, these are those actions that are aimed at a person realizing his right to free work. But at the same time, the law does not prohibit a person from carrying out actions to find a job on an individual basis. It follows from this that the types of employment for work according to such a classification criterion as the method of implementation are as follows:
- independent;
- through government agencies.
This process plays an important role in public and social life as it helps a person to exercise his right to get a job. On the part of employers, this is a plus in terms of selecting qualified workers or the necessary strength. Another advantage of employment is a good efficiency factor, that is, a person makes the most of his working time without wasting time searching for a vacancy.
How is this process carried out with the help of government agencies?
This process can be carried out with the help of special bodies. These mainly include institutions such as employment services. This method of performing this action is called special. Its distinctive feature is that, unlike the independent option, it characterizes only types of official employment.
Although labor is considered, according to the legislation in the Russian Federation, to be free, strict measures can characterize the implementation of this process with the help of state influence. For example, this may include recruitment, which is carried out in an organized manner, and the direction of persons to objects. This was more popular during the period of active development of the planned economy and is practically absent in this period of time. This was used to make this area more rational and provide human resources to those regions where they are sorely lacking.
Also, special employment refers to the placement of students who have graduated from vocational educational institutions. This is done through the conclusion of appropriate types of agreements with enterprises and institutions, which imply the hiring of young employees.
Another advantage of carrying out this process with the help of government agencies is that they have the right to subject jobs to quotas. This allows special segments of the population to find employment.
What categories of citizens are entitled to preferential jobs?
Some segments of the population have the right to social protection in the form of assistance in realizing the right to work. The list of such people includes the following categories:
- those who have disabilities;
- those who have been in prison;
- those who have not reached eighteen years of age;
- those who have two years left to work before retirement;
- migrants and refugees;
- single mothers and those with many children;
- parents raising a child with a disability;
- those who are looking for a job for the first time;
- those who graduated from specialized educational institutions.
How is this process of employing disabled people carried out?
Types of employment of disabled people are very important in the social sphere, since these people constitute a special category of employed people. Quotas apply to vacancies that can allow people with disabilities to work. These individuals cannot be one hundred percent active in society. It is the search for work that helps disabled people regain their place in society, recover morally and become full-fledged members of society. Thanks to this process, a person can again feel needed and important, and feel that he is benefiting other people.
Quotas are an officially established requirement that applies to all private entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs must allocate a certain proportion of vacancies for people with disabilities. However, the percentage established by law in Russia is quite low.
How is this process carried out for minors?
Types of employment of minors occupy their own niche in the employment market. This process is carried out regarding this category of citizens according to specific rules. In most countries of the world, for persons under eighteen years of age, the possibility of obtaining a job is regulated separately by law.
According to Russian regulations, the opportunity to enter into an agreement with employers appears upon reaching the age of sixteen. But the exception is fifteen-year-old teenagers who have received a secondary school education or are studying under an individual program. They are allowed to perform simple tasks that do not have a negative impact on health and do not interfere with development and functioning. A younger age category can be involved in the work process only as part-time employment. Work should allow the teenager to continue his education. But this age category is allowed to do this only with consent from parents or guardians.
That is, persons who have not reached the age of majority can be involved in any type of work, with the exception of gambling-type establishments and nightclubs. They are prohibited from dealing with cigarettes, alcohol and psychotropic substances. They should not be engaged in work that could potentially harm their health. That is, the transfer of heavy loads is limited to a certain weight.
All types of employment involving minors are accompanied by a medical commission, which must issue its conclusion.
Teenagers cannot be employed at work on holidays and at night. Working beyond the norm is also prohibited for this category. It is not allowed to send them on a business trip.
For such employees, a shortened working week is established. For persons under sixteen years of age, this number is twenty-four hours. For teenagers from sixteen to eighteen years old, this time is thirty-five hours a week.
Minor workers have additional guarantees. That is, an employer cannot voluntarily fire a teenager. This can only be done with the help of the state labor inspectorate.
An employer who hires a minor must understand that he is obliged to provide annual leave. It must be at least one month. And he is entitled to financial compensation.
Remuneration for work done for teenagers is calculated based on hours worked.
How is this process carried out without a work book?
Types of employment without a work book are a very real option in the Russian Federation. This option is within the law. However, a work book is a document that confirms that a person was involved in the work process. It contains complete information about the person, which is necessary for the further implementation of such activities. That is, this is information about education, specialty acquired, dates of employment and name of the organization. The document indicates the position and reasons for dismissal.
The work book confirms the fact of employment. But there are quite possible options when providing this document is not necessary. This is quite possible, but at the same time it requires the execution of another document, which is a civil contract. The second way is to work part-time. That is, one main job is issued in accordance with the work book, and the second - according to a special agreement.
The last option for a device without this document is all types of hired employment. That is, this is labor provided by agreement with an individual. If this is done legally, then an agreement must be drawn up between the employer and the employee. At the same time, the one who pays for the provision of the service must also make contributions to organizations such as the Pension Fund and the Social Insurance Fund.
But most often, institutions that do not make entries in the work book are thus trying to hide from the law. This is mainly due to concealment of the current financial situation, that is, non-payment of contributions.
Those who agree to work under such conditions most often face problems such as lack of vacation, sick leave and maternity pay. And you can’t be one hundred percent sure of the stability of such work.
An important point is that the contract, which is concluded instead of being recorded in the work book, is of a civil nature, and not of a labor nature. The parties to it are the customer and the contractor. There are several types of such agreements:
- author's;
- agent;
- for contract work.
All of the above types have common features. For example, they must be in duplicate, specify the details of the parties, deadlines for completion and the amount of remuneration.
What types of employment are there?
Types of employment in the Russian Federation are represented by four main categories. The most common job is one that has a permanent basis. It is she who brings a stable income. It is preferred because this type provides certain social guarantees. A person is protected, both socially and legally. In the event of job loss or unemployment, such a person may qualify for benefits. A certain percentage of the salary goes to the Pension Fund, which provides financial support in old age. Another advantage of this type of employment is the possibility of obtaining a loan.
The second type is part-time work. Most often this is a part-time job that brings in a small income. Such employment is common among students.
The third type is work under a contract. The amount stated in it is fixed and no deductions are made from it. In this case, taxes must be paid independently.
Types of employment do not necessarily provide financial compensation. An example of this is volunteering. Although it does not provide any financial benefits, its advantage is the acquisition of useful skills and connections.
At the moment, several more types of employment can be distinguished. These include freelancing and remote work via the Internet. Professionals in many industries can provide their services to employers from all over the world.