Basic units of speech communication. §15

A specific form of interaction between people in the process of their cognitive and labor activity is communication, or communication. Without communication, personality formation is impossible, and any type of activity is practically impossible. Philosophers, psychologists, linguists, sociologists, and cultural scientists deal with issues of communication, since two-thirds of human communication consists of speech: how speech is formed and how it is perceived, what are the communicative attitudes, what factors make communication difficult and what increase its effectiveness.

The basic units of speech communication are speech situation, speech event, speech interaction.

Speech situation– this is the context of the statement, what helps to understand it. As you know, a statement is made in a certain place at a certain time and has a certain set of participants: the speaker and the listener. The elements of a speech situation are the speaker, the listener, the time and place of utterance. The speech situation helps to understand the meaning of the message, specifies the meaning of a number of grammatical categories, correctly interprets the statement, and clarifies its purpose (request, advice, threat, indignation, censure, etc.).

The speech situation dictates the rules of conversation and determines the forms of its expression: public discussions, small talk, dialogues during exams, doctor’s appointments, etc. A statement can have both a direct meaning and a pragmatic meaning, depending on the speech situation. For example, the phrase “See you soon” can mean different things depending on the specific situation: “Everything will be fine,” “Don’t worry about me,” “You’ll find out everything soon.”

Statements whose semantic meaning differs from the pragmatic one are called indirect. The phrase “I will come tomorrow” can be interpreted as a promise, statement, announcement, threat. Indirect statements are widely used in speech, but their meaning becomes clear only in the context of the speech situation.

Speech event– it is a complete whole with its own form, structure, boundaries. This can be considered a lesson, meeting, meeting, conference, conversation in a bakery, on the subway, etc.

A speech event consists of two main components: 1) verbal speech - what is said and what accompanies it (gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, etc.); 2) condition, environment in which communication occurs (speech situation).

The first component, or living speech, taken in the event aspect, is called discourse in modern linguistics (from the French discours - speech). Discourse is speech “immersed in life.” During the production of discourse, the initial (basic) state of the language system is transformed under the influence of the communicative basis, and the system takes on a different (phase) state. The second component, the speech situation, has already been discussed above. Thus, a speech event consists of the sum of discourse and speech situation.

Speech interaction- this, on the one hand, is speaking, the process of generating speech by the subject, on the other hand, it is the perception of speech by the addressee, its decoding, understanding the content, evaluating the information received and responding to it (verbally or with facial expressions, gestures, behavior). Speech interaction is built on certain principles. The principle of consistency presupposes the relevance (semantic correspondence) of the response: a question presupposes an answer, a greeting presupposes a greeting, a request presupposes acceptance or rejection, etc.

Preferred Structure Principle characterizes the features of speech fragments with confirming and rejecting (agreement or disagreement) responses. Consent is usually expressed promptly, as concisely and clearly as possible. Disagreement is formulated at length, justified by arguments and delayed by a pause, which serves as a kind of indicator of deviating answers.

Principle of cooperation indicates the partners’ readiness to cooperate. Compliance with this principle is facilitated by the use of specific postulates, which are divided into four categories: the quantity category is associated with the amount of information, the quality category presupposes the truth of the statement, the attitude category is associated with relevance (with the semantic correspondence between the information request and the received message) and the method category is associated with the wrong what is said, but with how it is said.

The principle of politeness is a set of a number of rules: the rule of tact, the rule of generosity, the rule of approval, the rule of modesty, the rule of agreement, the rule of sympathy. The American philosopher P. Grice calls these rules maxims, or the communicative obligations of the speaker towards the addressee, which are not limited to those mentioned above. P. Grice believes that successful cooperation between the speaker and the listener is ensured by compliance with a number of maxims, for example, the maxims of quality (tell the truth), the maxims of quantity (say no more, but no less than is necessary for understanding), maxims of relation (not deviate from the topic), maxims of manner, or manner (speak clearly, consistently, accurately, politely).

The named principles (maxims) form the basis of the communicative code that regulates the speech behavior of the parties during the communicative act. The application of these principles allows us to more successfully organize speech interaction, increase its efficiency, and the harmony of the relationship between the speaker and the listener, which at all times was understood as the rhetorical ideal, or the Socratic ideal.

Researchers identify and describe basic units of speech communication - speechsituation, speech event, speech interaction.

Let's look at these concepts.

Speech situation- this is the context of the statement, what helps to understand it. It is known that an utterance is made in a certain place at a certain time and has a certain set of participants: the speaker and the listener. Thus, the components of a speech situation are the speaker, the listener, the time and place of the utterance.

Components of a speech situation:

Speaking;

Listening;

Time and place of utterance.

The speech situation helps to understand the meaning of the message, specifies the meaning of a number of grammatical categories, for example, the category of time: pronominal words like I, you, now, here, there, here, etc. It also allows you to correctly interpret the statement, clarify its target function (threat, request, advice, recommendation), identify causal connections of this statement with other events, etc.

The speech situation dictates the rules of conversation and determines the forms of its expression. For example, typical dialogues during exams, at the railway ticket office, at a doctor’s appointment, in a legal consultation; small talk at a party, at banquets; public discussions.

It is necessary to take into account that the statement, along with its direct meaning, has a meaning determined by the speech situation (pragmatic meaning), etc. For example, the phrase “See you soon,” said when parting with a loved one, can mean different things depending on the specific situation: “Don’t be upset, everything will be fine,” “Don’t worry about me,” “You’ll find out everything soon,” etc.

Statements whose direct meaning differs from the pragmatic one are called indirect. Here are examples of indirect Statements and their possible interpretations:

1. I'm not feeling well.

I don't want to talk to you.

Call a doctor as soon as possible.

I won't do this job.

Leave me alone.

2. I'll come tomorrow.

Announcement/Approval.

Promise or threat.

Indirect statements are widely used in speech. They make speech more expressive, concise, and allow you to convey a variety of expressive shades. The meaning of indirect statements becomes clear only in the context of a speech situation.

The basic unit of speech communication is a speech event.

As A.K. writes Mikhalskaya in the textbook “Fundamentals of Rhetoric”, a speech event is a kind of complete whole with its own form, structure, and boundaries. For example, a school lesson, a parent meeting, a meeting, a conference, a conversation in a bakery, on the subway, etc.

A speech event consists of two main components:

1) verbal speech (what is said, communicated) and what accompanies it (gestures, facial expressions, movements, etc.);

2) condition, environment in which communication occurs (speech situation).

The first component of a speech event, that is, living speech taken in the event aspect, is called discourse in modern linguistics (from the French s-speech). Discourse is speech “immersed in life.” In addition to speech, discourse includes facial expressions, gestures, and spatial behavior of interlocutors.

Spatial behavior is how close interlocutors tend to be from each other.

intimate zone (from 15 to 46 cm) - the most protected zone of interpersonal communication; Only those who are in the closest emotional contact are allowed to penetrate it. Personal zone(from 46 cm to 1.2 m) - a communication zone observed by interlocutors at parties, official receptions, and friendly communication. Social zone (from 1.2 m to 3.6 m) - a zone typical for communication between strangers. Public area(more than 3.6 m) is observed when addressing a large group of people.

The golden rule of communication is to keep your distance.

The second component of a speech event is a speech situation, including its participants, their relationships, and the circumstances in which communication occurs.

Thus, a speech event can be represented as a formula:

“discourse + speech situation + speech event.”

Components of a speech event:

Verbal speech and what accompanies it;

Speech situation (context of utterance).

Speech interaction is a very complex phenomenon: on the one hand, it is speaking, the generation of speech by the subject, on the other, the perception of speech by the addressee, its decoding, understanding of the content, assessment of the information received and response (verbally, facial expressions, gestures, behavior, etc. ).

Verbal interaction requires a team (at least two people). In the process of speech (verbal) interaction of subjects, their thinking, will, emotions, knowledge, and memory participate.

In addition to the direct participants - the speaker (S-subject) and the listener (A-addressee), who usually change roles, the subject of speech is also necessary, what they talk about and about what information is exchanged. Let us denote it by the symbol D, since this component is associated with knowledge about reality. It is necessary to know the language (L), or the communicative code, the system that provides the ability to translate the meanings and meanings of the transmitted information into signs, words, units

transmitted message. And, finally, the utterance itself (V) is necessary, that communicative speech unit that contains everything “that comes from the speaker (S) about what he is talking about (D) for his addressee (A) using language (L) known to both of them.

The utterance turns out to be the center of communicative interaction, around which all other “participants” of the dialogue are placed.

Let's imagine this clearly:

This scheme of a communicative speech act is the embodiment of a system, systemic interaction, self-sufficient, holistic and complete.

Speech activity, like any other activity, consists of processes that provide and make possible the implementation of the act of speech. These processes are a manifestation of the role of the participants in the dialogue (8 and A).

Processes

(S) GENERATION PREDICTION (A)

SPEAKING ___________ UNDERSTANDING

(PERCEPTION) __________REACTION

The processes of speech generation, its perception, understanding, and response to it determine the corresponding functions of the language system and its units.

Online Russian language lessons

Russian language and speech culture

Lesson 3.5. Speech event, discourse, speech situation

In research on linguistic pragmatics, the following units of communication are distinguished: speech event, speech situation and discourse.

Under speech event understands the specific fact of speech activity aimed at creating and understanding text for the purpose of communication.

Discourse call the text in conjunction with the extralinguistic characteristics of the act of communication (pragmatic, sociocultural, psychological, etc.), i.e. text taken in the event aspect.

Discourse is various types of speech practice, for example, ordinary everyday conversation, interview, lecture, business negotiations, etc.

A speech event thus includes three main components:
- verbal text (speech work);
- discourse;
- speech situation.

Speech situation represents the conditions, the environment in which speech communication occurs between participants, including the participants themselves, which significantly influence the speech event.

The speech situation, which constitutes the context of the utterance generated in the speech act, plays an important role in communication.

The speech situation helps to understand the meaning of the message, correlates with reality the meaning of a number of grammatical categories, for example, tense, person, the meaning of pronouns. The situation helps to correctly understand the function and indirect meanings of the statement.

The speech situation dictates the rules of conversation and determines the appropriateness of certain stylistic means of language, therefore, a correct understanding of speech situations is necessary for every person in order for his statements to comply with the norms of speech culture.

A speech event is the basic unit of communication (speech communication). It (speech event) is a complete whole and consists of two components:

1) this is what is reported, spoken (i.e. verbal speech), and what speech is accompanied by - facial expressions, gestures, which generally constitutes speech behavior;

2) these are the conditions, the environment in which verbal communication takes place, and the participants in communication themselves, i.e. speech situation.

Both components of a speech event are important for effective speech interaction.

At the same time, the features of speech, facial expressions, and gestures will be described further; here we will consider the speech situation in more detail.

Main features of a speech situation

The basics for describing a speech situation were given by Aristotle in his “Rhetoric” [Ancient rhetoric. M., 1978] He wrote that “speech is composed of three elements. From the speaker himself, from the subject about which he speaks, and from the person to whom he addresses; he is the ultimate goal of everything (I mean the listener).” [Rhetoric: Book One] In addition to the speaker and the addressee (the person to whom the speech is addressed), others who witness what is happening often participate in a speech situation. For a speech situation, the relationships between the participants in communication are also important, and above all, taking into account the social role of the participants in communication. Misunderstanding of their social speech by participants in communication leads to conflicts and problems.

For a speech situation, the purpose of the speech is extremely important (why something is being said in a given situation). Even Aristotle in “Rhetoric” paid great attention to the purpose of speeches of various types:

“For people who pronounce praise or blasphemy (epideictic speech), the goal is the beautiful and the shameful.” The speaker’s goal in such a speech is to show the audience “what is good and what is bad,” to ignite in their hearts a love for the beautiful and a hatred for the shameful.

“For litigants (who make a speech in court), the goal is just and unjust”; one accuses, the other defends or defends. - The speaker’s goal is to prove that he is right, that his point of view is fair.

“The person giving advice (political speaker) has a goal of benefit and harm: one gives advice, encouraging the better, the other dissuades, turning away from the worse.” [Aristotle. Rhetoric, book. 1]

Modern rhetoric considers the speaker's goal to be the result that the speaker wants to get from his speech. By speaking, a person commits an action (speech action), since, as mentioned above, the power of the word is great. Types of speech acts in modern rhetoric are classified based on the goals of the speaker. What goals can the speaker have? And what speech acts can he perform? Let's name the main ones.

Speaker's goal

(speech intention)

Type of speech act

(speech action)

(discourse)

1. Report, inform

Reporting information

Informative

2. Express and prove your opinion

Belief

Argumentative

3. Encourage action

Inducement

Agitating

4. Discuss the problem with the help of a partner, find the truth with him

Search for meaning

Euric (from Greek eurisko - I find)

5. Express your vision (understanding) of good and evil, beautiful and shameful

Evaluation (praise and blame)

Epideictic

6. Give pleasure to yourself and your partner by the very process of verbal communication as such

Playful speech acts

Hedonic (from the Greek hedomai - I rejoice) or diatribic (from the Greek diatribo - I spend time)

7. Express and arouse emotions, offer your “emotional picture” of the world

Poetic

Art

[Table from the book: A.K. Michalska. Basics of rhetoric. - M.: Education, 1996, p. 57]

Of course, in real life, in live communication, numerous other goals of speech and speech actions can be identified (winning the listener’s favor, winning compassion, making a request, etc.).

In order for speech (word) to act effectively, it is necessary that the speech situation be characterized by certain characteristics. Firstly, the principle of harmony of a speech event should be observed, i.e. what is said must correspond to the conditions of speech. Secondly, there are certain requirements for the behavior of the speaker. It is no coincidence that rhetoric says: “We listen not to speech, but to the person who speaks,” and the Roman theorist of rhetorical pedagogy Quintilian wrote: “If you want to become a good speaker, first become a good person.” Fulfilling this recommendation will require a long time, time to cultivate a “Human” within oneself, but there are also more specific recommendations to make your speech effective (persuasive, persuasive).

Despite national differences in the speech ideal, there is something in common that determines the success of speech.

Rule 1.

YOU speak to your listener(s) as an equal partner.

Rule 2.

YOU respect the opinion of your listener(s).

Rule 3.

YOU are interested in interacting with your listener(s).

Rule 4.

A speech is successful if the listeners are ready to receive the speech. Therefore, the audience must be prepared to perceive speech.

A.K. Michalskaya gives the following list of speaker qualities that ensure successful speech:

Charm;

Artistry;

Confidence;

Friendliness;

Sincerity;

Objectivity;

Interest;

Passion.

[Decree. worker, p. 67]. For more information, see the topic “Features of public speech” below.

American linguist Robin Lakoff draws attention to the need to adhere to the following principles of speech behavior:

Don't impose;

Listen to your interlocutor;

Be friendly.

Compliance with ethical rules and rules of speech etiquette is of utmost importance in the verbal interaction of people.

A speech event is the basic unit of communication (speech communication). It (speech event) is a complete whole and consists of two components:

1) this is what is reported, spoken (i.e. verbal speech), and what speech is accompanied by - facial expressions, gestures, which generally constitutes speech behavior;
2) these are the conditions, the environment in which verbal communication takes place, and the participants in communication themselves, i.e. speech situation.

Both components of a speech event are important for effective speech interaction.

At the same time, the features of speech, facial expressions, and gestures will be described further; here we will consider the speech situation in more detail.

Main features of a speech situation

Linguists study the processes of speech production and its perception; communication settings; connections between the utterance, the speaker and the speech situation; factors that make communication difficult; factors that increase efficiency; the relationship of speech activity to other types of activity, etc. Researchers identify and describe the basic units of communication - a speech event, a speech situation, speech interaction.

A speech event is understood as a discourse occurring in the context of a speech situation.

Discourse (from the French discours - speech) is the text associated with it in combination with extralinguistic - pragmatic, sociocultural, psychological and other factors; text taken in the event aspect.

Discourse is various types of speech practice: everyday dialogue, interview, lecture, conversation, negotiations, etc., i.e. speech “immersed in life.”

The direction includes paralinguistic accompaniment of speech (facial expressions, gestures)

A speech event, as follows from the definition, includes two main components:

1) verbal speech (what is said, communicated) and what accompanies it (discourse);
2) conditions, the environment in which speech communication occurs between participants, including the participants themselves, which significantly influence the speech event (speech situation).

Thus, speech can be represented in the form of a formula: “this is discourse plus speech situation.”

The speech situation, i.e. the situation that constitutes the context of the utterance generated in the speech act, plays an important role in speech communication.

It should be borne in mind that the utterance is made in a certain place at a certain time and has a certain set of participants - the speaker and the listener. Accordingly, the main components of a speech situation include the speaker and the listener, the time and place of the utterance.

The speech situation helps to understand the meaning of the message, specifies the meaning of a number of grammatical categories, for example, categories of time, pronominal (deictic) words like I, you, this, now, here, there, here, etc. The speech situation dictates the rules for conducting a conversation and determines its forms expressions.

It is necessary to take into account that statements, along with their own semantic meaning (direct meaning), have a pragmatic meaning determined by the speech situation. Statements whose semantic meaning differs from the pragmatic one are called indirect. Indirect statements are widely used in speech. They make speech more expressive, concise, and allow you to convey a variety of expressive shades. The meaning of indirect statements is understandable only in the context of a speech situation.

There are canonical and non-canonical speech situations.

Situations are considered canonical when the time of utterance (the time of the speaker) is synchronous with the time of his perception (the time of the listener), i.e. the moment of speech is determined; when the speakers are in the same place and each sees the same as the other; when the addressee is a specific person, etc.

Non-canonical situations are characterized by the following points: the time of the speaker, i.e. the time of utterance of the utterance, may not coincide with the time of the addressee, i.e. the time of perception (writing situation); the statement may not have a specific addressee (situation of public speaking), etc. Deictic words in such situations are used differently. If, for example, a telephone speaker uses the word here, then he only denotes his space. In a letter, the subject of speech now determines with a word only his own time, and not the time of the addressee.

Speech interaction is a very complex phenomenon. To understand its essence, first of all, one should understand what speech activity is, how it proceeds, under what conditions it is possible, and what is necessary for its implementation.

By nature, a person is endowed with a speech-thinking apparatus, without which speech activity would be impossible. To engage in speech activity, a person must have the ability to think, speak, and must feel the desire to realize his thought and convey it to another.

Speech activity is social in nature, since it is part of human social activity. The social nature of speech activity is also manifested in the fact that a team is required for its implementation. In the process of verbal interaction of subjects, their thinking, will, emotions, knowledge, memory - speech-mental, modal (volitional), emotional, intentional (intentional), cognitive (conceptual) spheres - are involved.

Speech activity is a process that develops and is formed from individual acts. Their character and content depend on the various situations in which a person finds himself.

Speech situations are varied, but the stages of speech activity are basically the same. Whatever speech situation a person finds himself in, if he strives to achieve success, achieve a goal, or attract attention, he must first of all orient himself in the current situation, realize what can lead to success, what should be guided by.

Speech, utterance is a product of speech activity, its generation. Speech activity most often pursues some goal, so the result is important. He is judged by feedback, by how they perceive what is said, how they react to it.

The study of speech activity is organically connected with psychology, psychophysiology, and sociology. In a speech setting, various aspects are studied that correspond to the goal set by the speakers: informative, prescriptive (impact on the addressee), expressive (expressing emotions, assessments), interpersonal (regulating the relationship between interlocutors), gaming (appeal to aesthetic perception, imagination, sense of humor) and etc.

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